
Copyright}!^. 



COPyRIGHT DEPOSm 



COLORS 

What they are and what to 
expect of them. 

A Series of Practical Treatises 

ON 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE COLOR MAKING IN- 
DUSTRY; PRELIMINARY STUDY OF COLORS; 
NATURAL EARTH COLORS; CHEMICAL MADE 
COLORS; VARIOUS DIVISIONS OF GROUPS OF 
COLORS; BLACK GROUP OF COLORS; BROWN 
GROUP OF PIGMENTS; RAW AND BURNT UMBER; 
THE MINING OF EARTH COLORS; THE BLUE 
GROUP OF PIGMENTS; ALSO THE GREEN; RED; 
YELLOW AND WHITE; VEHICLES OR THINNESS 
OF PIGMENTS; SYSTEM OF GRINDING. 

Each Treatise is followed with Test Questions 
: : : for the Student : : : 

By F. MAIRE 

Author of "Modern Painter's Cyclopedia" 
"Exterior Painting" and "Interior Painting" 

ILLUSTRATED 




CHICAGO 

Frederick J. Drake & Company 

PUBLISHERS 




i \ _V\^ 



COPYEIGHT 1910 
BY 

Fbedebick J. Dbakb & Co. 



^CI.A2750Li? 



PREFACE 

The sul>ject matter of the third volume 
of the red series of trade and industrial 
school manuals is one of the greatest im- 
portance to all painters engaged in any of 
the branches of painting be they wood 
finishers; plain outdoor painters; interior 
painters and decorators; sign painters; 
grainers and marblers; car and carriage 
painters; to every man who handles a 
brush and applies paint in no matter what 
way or manner. 

It is a vast subject to handle within the 
prescribed limits, too vast to do it full jus- 
tice in some of its aspects at least. The 
method of manufacturing for one is only 
of relative importance to the consumer. 
'As all men who take sufficient interest to 
go into the study of colors, wish to know 
something at least about how the various 
colors are made or procured, this side of 

17 



18 COLOES 

it will not be ignored by any means. The 
provenance of all colors will be clearly in- 
dicated and also of what their component 
parts consist— bnt details which would be 
of greater interest to color makers than to 
color users will not be given the promi- 
nence which properly belongs to that phase 
of the subject matter which is of more in- 
terest to the consumer of colors than that 
is. 

In short— colors will be considered 
mainly from the practical end in view of 
what can be expected of them and where 
and why they should be used for certain 
situations where one might otherwise be 
tempted to use another of about the same 
tone which is utterly unsuited for the pur- 
pose. 

While there are many things that each 
color or pigment is adapted to there are 
also many others for which they are not, it 
is purposed to plainly state these defects, 
if such deficiency can be called by that 
name. 



COLORS 19 

j^ great deal of the misliaps of paint 
going wrong, fading, etc., is caused by the 
ignorance of the painters who nse them. 
It is true and beyond the possibility of 
denial that fully ninety-five per cent, of 
the men using paint have but a very hazy 
notion as to what pigments are and but 
very few can give an intelligent reply to 
questions put to them concerning some of 
the pigments they have been using daily 
for years and years. 

There is no explanation given for this 
ignorance excepting that perhaps in large 
city shops the mixing of paint is usually 
done by men especially set apart for this 
—but this ignorance is not altogether due 
to this cause as in many of the smaller 
shops and in country towns, there is but 
very little more knowledge shown by either 
contracting master painters or journeymen. 

This manual is written more especially 
for the use of students in manual or indus- 
trial trade schools or for those who wish to 
post themselves at home and become fa- 



20 COLOKS 

miliar with the material they use— but 
while primarily written for the benefit of 
the persons described above there is room 
for its use and perusal by thousands and 
thousands of professional painters all over 
the land who would be benefited by know- 
ing considerable more than they do about 
the pigments they use. 

The same system and arrangement of 
the subject matter and of its division into 
lessons and paragraphs as was used in the 
first and second volumes will be used in 
this; as it facilitates the memorizing and 
where the manual is used in class work in 
trade schools, it will help the instructor as 
well as the students to formulate proper 
answers quickly, 

F. Maire. 



COLORS 



WHAT THEY ARE AND WHAT 
TO EXPECT OF THEM 



LESSON I 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE COLOR MAKING 
INDUSTRY 

1. The history of the color making in- 
dustry as such is rather of comparatively 
recent origin. But the use of colors is 
nearly as old as that of the existence of the 
human race itself, at least in some forms 
of it. All remains of ancient and decayed 
civilizations show that colors were used in 
adornment of objects and of persons so 
that the love of it is inherent to the human 
family. 

Man having been created with a love of 
the beautiful and of a keen sense of enjoy- 

21 



22 COLOKS 

ment in tlie harmonious display of color so 
lavishly bestowed upon everything created 
—it wonld have really been a wonder if it 
had ever been otherwise. 

2. In primitive times it is true that a 
very crude use of coloring was made and 
that the refinement of higher civilizations 
tend to educate man into a better use of it ; 
but there is no race of man known, no mat- 
ter how low it may have been sunk by its 
unfavorable environment into the lowest 
depths of degradation, that do not use and 
admire colors. The savage and uncivilized 
of both hemispheres make use of it in the 
beautifying of such articles as they use in 
self-adornment or in rendering their other- 
wise miserable hovels less desolate. 

3. The records which have been handed 
down to us of early civilisations either sa- 
cred or profane, are full of allusions to the 
use of colors. The Persians and Phoeni- 
cians were expert dyers and manufacturers 
of textile goods and the Egyptians were ac- 
quainted with them, too, as the intricate 



COLOKS 23 

tracings in color upon their sarcophagi, 
etc., which are even preserved to this day 
very convincingly prove them to have been 
acquainted with many which are in use 
to-day, especially the colored earths. 
Some which were rare and difficult to pro- 
cure were only used by the aristocracy and 
even exclusively by royalty, as purple, for 
instance. Even to this day, the color 
named is associated with that idea and the 
*^ royal purple'' has not entirely lost its 
early signification to-day. 

4. The later civilizations of the Gre- 
cians and Eomans developed a still wider 
use of colors and the bringing to light of 
the buried cities of Pompeii and Hercula- 
neum shows in a well-preserved state that 
colors were not only well known then but 
that there were artists in those early days 
who knew how to use them to perfection, 
not only in the form of mural decorations 
but in the representation of the human 
form and that of flowers, animals, etc., to 
a degree of perfection that is surprising 



24 COLOKS 

to those who may have thought that the 
artistic use of color is of comparatively re- 
cent origin. 

That white lead was well Imown is 
proved by the writings of Pliny, and he all 
but describes the process in use to-day. 
Besides the recent finds of small pots of it 
in Pompeii confirms it fully. There were 
no large factories of it then as now, how- 
ever, and with the slow way of writing 
everything, the very few who received lib- 
eral educations, it is not to be wondered 
at that when the Goths and Vandals had 
overrun Europe and brought all these civ- 
ilizations to an end, that colors which were 
well known to the Romans in the height 
of their better days were lost sight of until, 
after many centuries of oblivion, they were 
rediscovered. 

5. During the so-called Dark Ages, when 
a new civilization had to be worked out of 
chaos, all but art was at a low ebb, but it 
never became absolutely extinct. The mon- 
asteries which sprang up all over Europe 



COLOES 



25 



were the centers which kept art alive. The 
service of God was made attractive and the 
churches beautiful. The work of the 
monks in preserving and transcribing the 
ancient literature preserved from the ruins 
was of a very high character. They used 
colors in their work in profusion and some 
of their adorned manuscripts of missals, 
chronicles and legends abound with orna- 
mentation, some being very artistic and 
held in high esteem by lovers of the beau- 
tiful to-day. 

6. During the renaissance period when 
learning received a new impetus and a re- 
newal of life as the name itself indicates, 
there sprang into being a number of mas- 
ters in the use of colors and from the four- 
teenth century till the twentieth a gradual 
but constant increased use of color is very 
noticeable. The spread of universal 
knowledge made possible by the discov- 
ery of printing; the gradual development 
and improvements made in the producing 
of machinery to take* the place of manual 



26 COLORS 

labor ; the betterment and enrichment of a 
powerful mercantile middle class, after the 
discovery of the New World, were all fac- 
tors in bringing about the ability of pro- 
ducing the present civilization which we 
now enjoy. 

7. During all this time here and there 
some one made discoveries which produced 
this or that color. But it is only within the 
last two centuries that much progress was 
made in the preparation of colors and the 
last seventy-five years will show the great- 
est progress of all. This is no doubt due to 
the fact that the science of ^^ Chemistry '' 
became positive and it is due to its devel- 
opment that we have been given the many 
pigments which are in use to-day. 

It is not intended to give an historical 
review of all the colors separately, as this 
does not come within the scope of this 
manual. The gradual development of 
color noted in a general way will suffice for 
this purpose and will show that '^modern- 
ism," while it can lay claim to many new 



COLOKS 27 

colors exclusively its own, is far from hav- 
ing a monopoly of the love of it and even 
of its artistic application, and that the 
ancients had the same love for it as they 
who enjoy it now, but in a more restricted 
use of it. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON I 

1. Was color used in primitive times? 

2. Are colors used by uncivilized man 
at the present time? 

3. What colons were mostly used by 
Persians, Phoenicians, etc.? 

4. What use of colors were made by the 
Greek and Roman civilizations? 

5. Did artistic decoration perish dur- 
ing the so-called Dark Ages? 

6. What effect did the renaissance pe- 
riod have upon artistic production? 

7. What was the chief reason why so 
many new colors were discovered in the 
past century? 



28 COLOES 

LESSON II 

PEELIMINAEY STUDY OF COLOES 

8. It was seen in tlie first lesson that 
the use of colors is far from being of recent 
origin, but the largely increased popular 
use of them may be broadly stated so to be, 
and the manufacture of chemically made 
colors as well as the manipulations on a 
large scale of natural coloring matter or 
substances can be included in this same 
statement 

While in all ages since colors have been 
in use by man there no doubt have been 
men who made a specialty of their prep- 
aration, it is not probable that there were 
any collective producing of them by the 
factory system of to-day. 

Every man had his own empirical form- 
ulas handed down and held as an heir- 
loom to be transmitted in the same manner 
to his descendants that he himself had re- 
ceived them. 



COLOKS 29 

In the long course of time there is a 
great probability that many processes of 
producing dyes and colors accidentally dis- 
covered which became lost because of the 
death of the discoverer before he had 
parted with the knowledge of his find to 
others, and it is a well-known fact that 




to-day, with all the chemical knowledge to 
help, some colors used in glass staining in 
the Middle Ages cannot be reproduced; 
the art of making them having become a 
lost one. 

9. All colors, no matter what they are, 
can be classed into one of the two principal 
divisions of pigments. 1. Those which are 



so COLORS 

produced by nature itself. 2. Those whicli 
are manufactured by the compounding to- 
gether of various chemical substances 
which may form new chemical combina- ' 
tions or which simply combine togetheF 
without assimilation. 

THE NATURAL EARTH COLORS 

10. The naturally produced colors form 
a large division and are the ones which 
were used mostly by ancient civilization, 
although they were not exclusively con- 
fined to them, as will be seen later; yet 
such were their main-stay and their chief 
resources. 

This class of colors are nearly all earths 
and ores of metals. As a rule they are 
very permanent, and nearly all of them 
unchangeable. They form an important- 
part of the painter's palette to-day, not 
alone for the artist and decorator, but for 
the needs of much of the exterior and inte- 
rior painting of all kinds of surfaces. 

11. The principal component parts of 



COLOES 31 

the colored and usually nearly the whole 
of the earth whites are earths or decom- 
: posed rock, the coloring matter of the 
.' reds and yellows of all shades being due to 
the admixture to the earth base of oxide 
or peroxide of iron in the reds or of the 
hydrate-oxide of iron in the yellows, much 
of this being due to infiltrations upon the 
earth layers from iron ore beds above them. 
Manganese also plays an important part in 
the coloring of these earths, especially in 
the brown toned ones as the umbers. Lime, 
either the carbonate or sulphate, is the chief 
white coloring element of the earth whites. 
It has taken thousands of years of infil- 
trations to produce some of the beds of 
earth colors which are used to-day, and 
still the process is going on. It stands to 
reason that if thousands of years in the 
forming have been unable to change the 
^ coloring of these naturally made pigments 
that they must be immune to the atmos- 
pheric influences which play such havoc 



32 COLOES 

[With the permanency of many of the 
brighter hued pigments that are made arti- 
ficially. 

Iron oxide is by far the most important 
factor in the producing of colored earths. 
Its rnst in its natural state, when exposed 
to moisture, is in the hydrated form or of 
a yellowish tone. This by heating loses 
its water of hydration and becomes red. 
During prehistoric times when these beds 
must have been subjected to great heat, 
the hydrated oxide became changed into 
the oxide and formed the red pigments. 

When the word unchangeable is used in 
connection with the oxides of iron, it is 
only relatively so ; it applies fully only to 
the yellows or hydrated oxides— the natu- 
ral form of iron rust and hydrogen in the 
form of moisture or water. 

There is a constant tendency for oxide of 
iron to become more and more hydrated 
and to return to its first and natural condi- 
tion. It is so slow that it would take many 
hundred years to be completed, but the, 



COLORS 33 

change is constantly going on and this 
phenomenon will explain why red oxide of 
iron paint becomes duller toned after years 
of exposure in situations where moisture 
affects them. But it is so slow that no one 
need fear that the change will be greatly 
noticed within an average life time, and 
then it will be time for repainting sure. 

12. Lime which in some form is the col- 
oring matter of most of the white earths, 
is also permanent and not subject to 
change, so that one need not fear any pos- 
sible variations from their use excepting 
that of the pigments used with them in the 
making of tints. 

In their self color all earth whites are 
perfectly permanent. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON II 

8. Is the factory system of producing 
pigments of recent origin? 

9. What are the two general divisions 
into which all colors may be classed! 



34 COLOES 

10. What is said concerning tHe natu- 
rally produced colors'? 

11. Wliy is it that the naturally pro- 
duced colors are so permanent ? 

12. Why are the earth whites perma- 
nent? 



COLORS 



35 



LESSON III 

PRELIMINARY STUDY OF COLORS CONTINUED 
THE CHEMICALLY MADE COLORS 

13. The cliemically made colors consti- 
tute a large section of the two principal 
divisions of pigments. By new discoveries 
it is becoming richer and more valuable 
year by year, not alone by the addition of 
some new color as in discoveries to make 
those already on the list better than they 
were; of fixing the coloring matter so that 
there is less tendency of their fading, mak- 
ing them more permanent and that much 
more valuable to the trade. 

14. While it is not possible to so manip- 
ulate and combine certain colors as to ren- 
der them relatively permanent, as they 
must at some time and somewhere come in 
contact with inimical substances which de- 
stroy them by forming new chemical com- 
pounds with them, it must have been no- 
ticed by the careful observer in the trade 



36 COLORS 

that many colors wHcli were considered so 
fugitive as to be worthless a few years ago 
are now much better made and compara- 
tively permanent to what they used to be. 
There is a possibility of their improve- 
ment up to certain points only, however, 
and the more durable ones of certain 
shades and tones must be obtained, after 
all, by new chemical discoveries. 

15. The derivation of many colors or 
dyes from coal tar has grown to be an im- 
mense industry and may be said to be still 
in its infancy. Many of the older men, 
the writer among them, can well recollect 
the time of the first placing upon the mar- 
ket of the aniline dyes and of the great stir 
it made at that time. The first attempts 
have been very much improved since and 
the crude efforts of the first discoverer 
have given place to products which are 
very far ahead of them. Thanks to their 
betterment and new processes of extrac- 
tion from a fugitive rose aniline about 
worthless as dependable coloring matter. 



COLOKS 



37 



we have to-day coal tar colors wMcH rival 
and, in fact, are identical with madder red. 
This discovery has driven the real madder 
red out of existence as the artificial is so 
perfectly like it that a chemical analysis 
would not detect it. It is therefore to be 
expected that, however great the discov- 
eries of the past few years have been, the 
researches of science have not said their 
last word in producing valuable colors 
from that one source alone. 

16. Some improvements in the making 
of chemical colors as well as in the discov- 
ery of several were the results of chance 
and accident, especially at the time when 
chemistry began to disentangle itself from 
its swaddling clothes of empirical alchemy 
to the exact science that it has developed 
into. "While there have been but few new, 
colors obtained by chance and accident in 
the recent past, many improvements in 
their making and preparation can be said 
to be due to those causes. 

No doubt many are not aware of the in- 



38 COLOKS 

fluence of wliat it is usual to consider as 
accessories in the making of colors. Chev- 
reuil, the great color scientist, relates how 
certain colors become obsolete in the great 
government dye-works at the Gobelins in 
Paris. The formulas were all right and 
the same, but the colors were not, and no 
matter how careful the operations, they 
would not show up. He relates how a sur- 
face brook used to run down the street 
gutter and how this stream coming down 
from the ^^ Abattoirs'' above was more or 
less polluted with blood and other animal 
offal, and it was further noted that since 
the city had turned the stream into the 
sewers the trouble had commenced with 
the producing of the colors when the Gobe- 
lin factory stopped the use of the water 
from the brook in preparing its dyes. At 
last, after many months of failure, the 
right cause was hit upon— *4he water was 
not the same." After artificially polluting 
their good water they had no difficulty in 



COLORS 39 

reproducing tlie old time colors in all their 
beautiful shades. 

The above instance is given in order to 
show that some things which are not 
counted upon as factors in the making of 
colors exert a great influence in their prep- 
aration and frequently in the fixing of 
the coloring matter more firmly. Im- 
provements thus obtained may be acci-* 
dental and are not accounted for in any 
other way. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON III 

13. What is said in a general way of 
the chemically made colors? 

14. Can all colors in this class be made 
absolutely permanent? 

15. What is said of the discoveries in 
the making of coal tar colors? 

16. Are improvements in color making 
always attributable to science? 



40 COLOKS 

LESSON IV 

THE VARIOUS DIVISIONS OR GROUPS OF COLOR 

17. For tlie purpose of easier identifi- 
cation and examination the colors have 
been placed into seven general groups and 
each color or pigment classified in it ac- 
cording to its color as represented by the 
general name of the group. In a very few 
instances it is rather an arbitrary placing, 
as where the color seems to really lean 
more strongly to another than the one it is 
placed in, but in such instances there are 
very good reasons given for the deviation 
as for instance: Chrome yellow belongs' 
generically to the yellow group and all are 
manufactured in nearly the same manner, 
the slight variations producing their dif- 
ference in color not changing the processes 
much, but the orange chrome yellows, es- 
pecially the deep shades of it, are nearly a 
scarlet and would seem to have been much 
more at home in the red group than in the 



COLOKS 



41 



yellow As tlie process of manufacturmg 
them is given in the yellow class and their 
variations for the orange at the same time 
making it much easier to understand, it is 
only proper that all chrome yellows should 
be placed in the same group. 

The above is given as an illustration that 
where there is an apparent discrepancy in 
the rule there was a very good reason for 
it or it would not have been done. 

18. These seven divisions contain all 
the colors that will be reviewed in this 
manual : 

1\ The black group. 

2\ The blue group. 

3°. The brown group. 

4. The green group. 

5. The red group. 

6. The white group. 

7. The yellow group. 

19. At the heading of each color named 
will be given not only its official name, ix,, 
the name which it is best known by in the 



42 COLORS 

United States (it is called official only in 
that sense), but all other names nsed to 
designate the same color in certain coun- 
tries or in certain localities, will also be 
given in smaller type. Synonyms have 
frequently caused much misapprehension 
on the part of those who are imperfectly 
informed regarding pigments, as they are 
naturally led to think that they are not 
using the right color when perhaps they 
call for it under a name which they may 
have read about in some English book, 
where colors are sometimes designated 
differently than is customary in the United 
States. Even here some sections continue 
to use the old English designation, while 
in others another which is entirely differ- 
ent is in use. 

It is unfortunate that the nomenclature 
of colors is not uniform the world over. It 
is hoped that time will correct this unneces- 
sary tangle. In the meantime the syn- 
onyms given will give relief at least to 



COLORS 43 

those who will take the trouble to familiar- 
ize themselves with them. 

20. It will be noticed that the groups of 
colors are not given according to their im- 
portance. They are arranged nearly so, 
however, and more alphabetically. This is 
done in order to facilitate the search for 
them, when one does not care to turn to 
the index. This is the only quick and 
proper way, however, and as it has been 
purposely made copious in order to save 
the time of the students in looking up any 
particular item they wish to see, they 
should use it more frequently, as otherwise 
the very thing they wish to know may slip 
by unnoticed by them. 

21. As far as possible the following 
method will be used in the description of 
pigments: Their origin; their chemical 
composition when the same can be given 
without going into too intricate details. 
This will include the processes of manu- 
facturing them when these are simple. The 
pigments which are mostly used will re- 



44 COLOKS 

ceive more attention and will be examined 
at greater length than those which are sel- 
dom used and of doubtful utility. This 
will be followed up with the best uses that 
€an be made of them practically in oil, 
japan or water color work. 

Many colors should never be used under 
certain conditions, surroundings, or be 
mixed with certain other colors. Such as 

4 

are adversely affected in that way will 
have the same noted. Their defects as 
well as their good qualities will be pointed 
out. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON IV 

17. Into how many groups have all the 
various pigments been placed? 

18. Name the various groups of colors. 

19. Under the names here given to col- 
ors what others will be added? 

20. Why has the alphabetical arrange- 
ment been adopted in naming the groups of 
colors 1 

21. Eelate the manner in which the ex- 
amination of colors is to be made. 



COLORS 45 

LESSON V 

THE BLACK GROUP OF COLORS 

22. The black group of pigments is of 
great importance to all classes of painters. 
The house painters use blacks in the pre- 
paring of tints, as well as in its self color— 
the same can be also said of interior and 
exterior decorators. The grainers even 
use it in the preparing of their colors. The 
sign painter could hardly carry on his busi- 
ness without the black, and to him it is 
the one most important pigment on the list. 
The car, and especially the locomotive 
painter, the carriage and buggy painters 
use it in enormous quantities and imple- 
ment manufacturers as well as those of 
iron specialties use it. There is no class of 
painting done where some use of it is not 
made. But that the quantity of it used 
when compared to some other pigments 
which are used as bases in preparing tints 
and which are required in much greater 



46 COLOES 

quantities than are the blacks, they might 
well be entitled to first place in general 
utility as well as first place on account of 
their alphabetical order. 

23. Lamp Black. Noir de fumee, Fr,—, 
Buss, Ger. Lamp black has no synonyms 
under which it is known in the English laur 
guage. As it is in the shape of tube colors 
it is sometimes to be found imported from 
France and Germany, the name under 
which they are sold is also given. 

Lamp black has been well known and 
used from time immemorial, having been 
used uninterruptedly, from primitive times 
to the present. It would have been a won- 
der had it been otherwise as it is so easily 
produced. 

24. It is soot, pure and simple. Being 
almost pure Carbon, it is perfectly inde- 
structible and unalterable. It is produced 
by the incomplete combustion of fats and 
oils. Long hollow iron tubes, at one end 
of which the burning takes place with an 
insufficiency of air. This produces soot, 



COLiOKS 47 

which is deposited inside of the iron cylin- 
der. The best and finest particles are car- 
ried the farthest away, while the poorest 
and heaviest naturally settle the nearest to 
the point of burning. When enough has 
been burned the cylinders are cleaned and 
scraped. According to the distance from 
the burning point the product is separated 
inta grades, the finest qualities being sepa- 
rated from those of medium and these 
again from those of inferior grade. 

25. The lamp black as it is extracted 
from the cylinders usually contains fatty 
matter, which is anti-drying in linseed oil. 
The finest qualities are more free from this 
than the medium and especially the lowest 
grades of it, but even for these it is better 
that they should be calcined by being sub- 
jected to a strong red heat which will burn 
out this deleterious greasy matter which 
otherwise renders it so very difficult to dry 
in oil work. 

26. Calcined lamp black is much more 
satisfactory to use than are the other quali- 



48 COLrORS 

ties, no matter how good they may be ; for, 
after the burning out of the anti-drying oils 
contained in it, it is easy enough to make it 
dry within a reasonable time. The preju- 
dices of a few painters against its use is 
no doubt due to their lamp black ground in 
oil being of poor quality and uncalcined. 

27. The house painter uses it princi- 
pally for the making of tints to which pur- 
pose it is eminently adapted. Good lamp 
black produces the cleanest, purest toned 
grays of any of the blacks, without excep- 
tion. All other blacks, no matter how 
much more intensely jet black they may be, 
and which when placed alongside of the 
best lamp black make it appear of a dirty 
gray as compared with their own intense 
blackness, do not approach it in clearness 
when it comes to the making of tints, the 
nearest coming to it being the best quality 
of ivory black and even it must be placed 
as second. 

It is also much used in tint making, not 
alone in the making of grays, lead and slate 



COLOKS 49 

tints, but for tlie deepening and tlie toning 
up of an innumerable list of them. 

Lamp black is one of the greatest absorb- 
ents of linseed oil in the color list. It re- 
quires about 220 lb. of linseed oil to grind 
100 lbs of good calcined lamp black. It is 
inert in oil, having no effect whatever upon 
it one way or another. It was seen that 
the uncalcined had an anti-drying effect 
upon it, so that unless one is well ac- 
quainted with the working qualities of the 
lamp black that he may be using, he will be 
on the safe side in using a liberal quantity 
of dryers with it. 

The above is its one weak point and to 
that may also be added that it is not a jet 
black, so that where an intense black is 
wanted, this jetness must be supplied to it 
by the addition of another black possessing 
this quality or by its substitution alto- 
gether. 



50 COLORS 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON V 

22. What is said about the general util- 
ity of the black group of colors? 

23. Has lamp black been long in use ? 

24. "What is lamp black and how is it 
obtained? 

25. How are the various qualities of 
lamp black separated? 

26. What is said of calcined lamp 
black? 

27. What is lamp black chiefly used for 
by house painters and what are its chief 
defects t 



COLOKS 51 

LESSON VI 

THE BLACK GROUP CONTINUED 

Gas or Carbon Black has also a good ar- 
ray of proprietary names given it. 

28. This black may be said to be a va- 
riety of lamp black, as it is produced by a 
similar process of incomplete combustion, 
only that instead of fats or rosins being 
used it is made from natural gas, hence its 
name. It, too, is a pure carbon nearly, in 
fact, nearly all the blacks are, therefore 
unchangeable and unalterable. The proc- 
ess of making it being similar to that of 
lamp black, it need not be repeated. 

29. While the method of producing gas 
black is similar, and its chemical composi- 
tion, '^carbon/' is about the same as lamp 
black, the similarity ends there, for it is an 
entirely different black in all other respects 
nearly. It is a much more intensely jet 
black than lamp black and when placed 
side by side it makes the latter appear dull 



52 COLOES 

and grajdsh, even the very best of it. For 
solid black painting, therefore, the gas 
black is much more desirable. 

30. It is a great absorber of oil and 
therefore a good pigment to use for out- 
door painting. The steamships engaged in 
the transatlantic trade, which are re- 
painted at the end of every trip, use enor- 
mous quantities of it, or at least of a black 
paint into which it enters largely as a com- 
ponent part in order to give it its jetness. 

31. In the early days of its introduction 
it received a backset in the estimation of 
many users of paint in that it was found it 
had the property of turning linseed oil into 
a livered-like jelly which could not be ap- 
plied with a brush. So the many painters 
then who were attracted to it by its density 
formed a very strong dislike to it. The 
grinders soon found a remedy for this, so 
that now there is no danger in using it on 
that account; but the reputation for it 
haying been made and the cost of it hav- 
ing advanced from the earlier prices when 



, COLOKS 53 

natural gas was very much cheaper than it 
is now, it is now very seldom sold under its 
proper name except in a dry state or mixed 
up with other blacks in order to render 
them more intense and better covering, es- 
pecially in the blacks used by the carriage 
trade. 

32. Some of its good points may well 
be inferred from what has been already 
said. The first in order is its jettiness. It 
is an intensively black black. Even the best 
coach drop ivory blacks do not surpass it. 
In addition to the above is its great opacity 
which fully equals that of lamp black. 
It is so great that one would be safe to say 
that it would take at least 7 to 10 lbs of 
the best of the ivory blacks to cover 
over a white ground the same amount 
of surface that 1 lb. of gas black would 
cover fully as well. It is chiefly for its own 
self color that it is useful, for in the making 
of tints with a white base it produces rusty 
tones of grays that cannot be compared to 
those produced by lamp black and the bet- 



54 COLOES 

ter sorts of ivory black. TMs dirty- 
rusty-looks in its tint making with whites is 
a pretty certain indication that it has been 
used in preparing certain blacks that are 
neither strong nor naturally very intense. 
It is used much to bolster up those weak 
colors. 

Ivory Black,— Drop Black, Coach Black, 
and under hundreds of fancy proprietary 
names in coach colors ground in japan or 
varnish. 

Ivory black (?) is purely and simply 
bone black of good quality, usually made 
from selected hard bones, teeth, etc., prob- 
ably at some time or other somebody may 
have dropped in a handful of ivory dust 
from the turning lathes, hence the name. 
There would not be enough ivory shavings 
and cast-off parts in the whole world to 
last one week for use in the making of 
ivory black for the United States alone, 
let alone the immense use made of it by 
Canadian and foreign industry. It is ani- 
mal charcoal of good quality. 



COLORS 



55 



34. The bones are placed in a closed 
vessel and subjected to heat in ovens built 
especially for the purpose. There it is 
converted into animal charcoal of an in- 
tense black if made from the right mate- 
rial. Its coloring is due to carbon ; it also 
contains lime and phosphate, which are 
elements contained in the bones. It is very 
.permanent and unalterable. It is em- 
ployed in interior decoration in either wa- 
ter or oil color work, but is more desirable 
in oil work. It is chiefly used for its self 
color, as it does not produce as good, clean 
tints as lamp black does, nor is it nearly 
so strong. It would require several times 
as much weight of it to produce a tint that 
was made from lamp black. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON VI 

28. What is said of gas black and of 
its manufacture? 

29. What are the characteristics of gas 
black! 

30. What else is said regarding these? 



56 COLOES 

31. Is it possible to grind it so as not to 
liver Tip the linseed oil 1 

32. Wliat are its good points and de- 
fects? 

33. What is ivory black! 

34. How is animal charcoal made ? 



coiiOES 57 

LESSON VII 

THE BLACK GKOUP CONTINUED 
IVORY BLACK CONTINUED 

35. Under the name of drop black it 
was customarj^ in the past to grind bone or 
ivory black finely and to wash it afterward 
to remove any impurities. After the set- 
tling, the pulp was picked up in spoons and 
each dabbed on a metal sheet which took 
the form of drops of about the same shape 
as that of the ordinary chocolate drops, 
which owe their shapes to a similar treat- 
ment. This is what gave it its name. It 
is still sold under that name and also un- 
der that of coach black, which are all con- 
vertible terms for the same thing. 

36. It is sometimes mixed with a ^mall 
portion of Prussian blue in order to in- 
crease its jetness, but the good qualities 
of it do not require this treatment, and it 
is given mainly to those which are not of 
a good enough quality to stand by them- 



58 COLOKS 

selves in order to kill their gray appear- 
ance, and such blacks should always be 
looked upon with suspicion, as Prussian 
blue is not nearly as permanent as carbon 
black, so that there is a chance of their 
losing their artificial jet and of showing 
their natural inferiority. 

37. As with the present demand for ma- 
terial that is already prepared by pulveriz- 
ing and grinding for immediate thinning 
with varous vehicles for use, there is but 
little if any drop black in that form for sale 
and it is dried in pans in thin sheets, as 
are all other colors in the color drying 
houses, after which it is finely ground dry 
and sold in that shape for such trade as 
wish it for water color work. Even many 
painters prefer to use it already ground in 
water, especially the grainers. For oil 
work it is seldom that a painter would wish 
to buy it dry and grinc^ it himself, as it is 
a very hard color to grind, ^nd he would 
not care to try the experiment bnt once, so 



COLOKS , 59 

it is ground in oil and sold in that shape for 
the general paint trade. 

38. The carriage trade consumes most 
of the ivory blacks, as it is the one black 
pigment they swear by and without which 
they would hardly know how to get along 
with their black work and that is the chief 
color used in all carriage work and is com- 
ing into favor more and more in the paint- 
ing of automobiles. For this trade it is 
ground in japan and varnish and put up in 
5 to 10 lbs. press cans and in the usual 
smaller tin cans for such trade as use 
but little of it. It is made in many qual- 
ities of the genuine and is also sold under 
a great number of proprietary names, 
where it is easier to disguise it and correct 
its faults of covering by mixing it with gas 
black. 

39. Charcoal hlack— Blue black— Vine 
black — Frankfort black — Frankfurter 
Schwartz— GeY—noir de vigne, Fr. Char- 
coal black is useful only to the decorator 
and in water colors at that. Its tone of 



60 COLORS 

a semi transparent character even in water 
is a blmsh black and it is useful in glazing 
principally. It is made from twigs of 
trees, grapevine cuttings, etc; by being 
placed in sheet iron cylinders and sub- 
jected to heat in order to turn them into 
charcoal after which it is pulverized and 
comes in that shape to the trade. 

40. GTEn^hlte— Plumbago— Blach lead. 
Has been known from most ancient times. 
As a material to be used in painting how- 
ever it is of only recent origin — as the un- 
attractiveness of its self tone did not ap- 
peal to the imagination of our ancestors. 
In this utilitarian age,, however, where 
preservation is frequently the only reason 
why surfaces are covered with paint it 
has come into quite an extended use. It 
is a pure natural carbon and is to be found 
in many parts of the world. It has many 
other economic uses which this manual 
must ignore as being no part of its subject 
matter. 

41. In oil it is inert as are all paints 



COLOKS 61 

consisting mainly of carbon and having no 
foreign admixture to act injuriously upon 
it. It is best used for irons and metallic 
surface covering for which it is well 
adapted. It can also be used to good ad- 
vantage in the painting of wooden out- 
houses and buildings of any kind. Its un- 
attractive color can be improved by the 
addition of some other strong colored pig- 
ments which will change its tone sufficiently 
to remedy this defect by the addition of but 
a small quantity of it. The red oxide of 
iron, the yellow oxide of iron for examples 
—it will require but little of either to mate- 
rially change it. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON YIL 

35. What is said of drop black? 

36. How is it prepared? 

37. In what shape is it placed on the 
market 1 

38. How is ivory black prepared for 
the carriage trade? 



62 COLORS 

39. What is cliarcoal black and what 
are its uses in painting? 

40. What is graphite or plumbago? 

41. What are the chief uses of graphite 
as a paint? 



COLORS 63 

LESSON VIII 

THE BROWN GROUP OF PIGMENTS 

42. The most of the pigments composing 
the brown group are highly esteemed by 
all classes of painters for either oil or 
water color work and they are also very 
much used by the carriage car and auto- 
mobile trade, while the grainer would have 
to quit his specialty, for the brown pig- 
ments are those which with the exception 
of ivory black compose his whole stock in 
trade. 

They are not used in such enormous 
quantities as the blacks, it is true, but their 
utility is as great and their range of use- 
fulness is even greater. Unlike the black 
group whose coloring matter is chiefly con- 
fined to one element * ^ carbon. ' ' The brown 
pigments are derived from various sources 
and their original derivation are from all 
kingdoms: animal, vegetable, metallic and 
mineral. 



64 COLOKS 

43. Tlie brown pigments, many of them 
being derived from natural earths were 
made use of by the earliest civilizations to 
a large extent as well as many tints made 
from them and whites in the form of gray 
brown drabs. At the present time the list 
has greatly increased in that, many valu- 
able additions have been made to it; es- 
pecially in the more transparent form of 
brown lakes until there is hardly any 
hue or shade of brown that is not repre- 
sented in the brown pigments derived from 
coal tar. Their nomenclature being mainly 
proprietary names— this creates much con- 
fusion and it is a hard matter to describe 
them in other than general terms. It is 
earnestly hoped that the near future may 
bring order out of this chaotic condition. 

44. The most useful of the browns which 
are chiefly esteemed and used by painters 
of all kinds, are those, which are derived 
from natural beds or which are best known 
as earth colors. The earths themselves 
which form the base holding the coloring 



COLOKS 65 

which is chiefly manganese or iron, or com- 
binations of the two, may vary greatly 
while the base does not always affect the 
coloring matter it contains, it does do so 
in some instances and its composition af- 
fects the working qualities greatly. Those 
browns which have a silicions earth base 
being more transparent than those of an 
aluminous one, being also brighter toned as 
clay has a tendency to muddy their purity 
of tone, as a rule it may be said to have an 
injurious effect upon them. The composi- 
tion of the base has an effect sufficiently 
great as to influence the value of the prod- 
uct of the same bed to the extent that on 
account of this difference, the pigment is 
mined in veins separately from the rest of 
it which is not so good. 

45. In paragraphs 47 to 52, of lesson IX, 
is given the process usually employed in 
mining the earth colors and as the system 
applies to the mining of most of the other 
earth colors, it is given there fully and the 
student will be referred to it all through 



66 COLOES 

tlie rest of this manual wherever there 
will be occasion to do so. 

KAW AND BUENT UMBEES. 

46. These and the siennas form a group 
which the whole family of painters are in- 
timately familiar with. Both are widely 
disseminated over the whole earth's sur- 
face, but as stated before there is as wide 
a difference in their quality as there is in 
the wideness of their existence. Those 
which have been found in the United 
States so far unfortunately are not of such 
a good quality as could be desired, far 
from it even and they are sold at a price 
which represents this difference better 
than words, the American selling at Ic per 
pound when the best Cyprus or Turkish is 
worth 6 to 7c per pound. 

It is barely possible that our western 
mountains may contain valuable beds of 
umbers and sienna earths, as that section 
of our domain is its infancy and compara- 
tively undeveloped, the future may bring 



COLOES 67 

to light some more valuable deposits of 
them than has been found in the better ex- 
plored eastern portion. 

The process of mining the umbers be- 
ing the same as that used in obtaining the 
Siennas, Ochres, earth whites, etc; it is 
given below in lesson IX. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON VIII 

42. What is said in general about the 
brown groups of pigments? 

43. What is said about the derivation of 
the brown pigments ? 

44. Which is the section of the brown 
pigments which is the most esteemed? 

45. What is said regarding the mining 
of earth colors in general? 

46. What is said concerning the distri- 
bution of umbers and Siennas? 



68 COLOES 

LESSON IX 

THE BKOWN GROUP OF PIGMEN^TS CONTINUED 
RAW AND BURNT UMBER 

THE MINING OF EARTH COLOES 

47. While we are considering the deri- 
vation of the umbers and siennas, they be- 
ing the first of the earth colors nnder ex- 
amination, it is appropriate that the proc- 
ess of mining the earth colors should be 
here fully described. It will suffice with 
slight variations for all othei" natural col- 
ored earths obtained from the ground by 
mining. 

48. All mining is not done alike al- 
though the product may be the same and 
will be treated the same in the way of 
cleaning, etc; to prepare it for market. 
Some of these earth veins may lie close to 
the stirface of the soil, others again may 
be located upon the sides of hills either at 
right angles or in layers with a clip or 
slant. Some again may be located in .plains 



COLORS 69 

at great depths. Each will require a very 
much different system of mining in order 
to reach them and to bring them to the 
surface. It is not the purpose of this man- 
ual to give a treatise on mining, as really 
it is a matter of small importance as to the 
how it is done. What it is purposed to do, 
however, is to tell how the raw mined earth 
is treated after it is brought to the surface 
to be prepared for market. 

49. It is now supposed that the earth 
has been brought to the sheds where it is 
to be treated in order to fit it for use. In 
its raw condition it is usually full of im- 
purities such as sand, roots of trees, etc; 
which must be removed. This cleaning 
process is called in paint vernacular ''Levi- 
Ration/' or what the unitiated would call 
a washing; for that is what levigating 
means ; the dirt, sand and pebbles must be 
washed out of the earth color whatever 
its name may be for this process is applied 
to all of them including whiting which is 
made from ground chalk. 



70 COLORS 

50. The usnal method employed in levi- 
gating or washing impurities from earth 
pigment is very simple and easily under- 
stood. Pebbles, sand and most of the im- 
purities they contain are heavier than the 
colored earths are, consequently when 
stirred up with water the heavy portions 
will naturally sink first to the bottom. Now 
if a series of tanks are built connecting with 
each other through the ends by openings 
which are meshed with wire cloth to pre- 
vent the passage of roots and other light 
impurities, the lighter portion of the stirred 
up earth will flow on from one tank to the 
others depositing along its course the 
heavier parts they contain and which are 
the impurities, the finer flowing onward 
the longest before depositing. Therefore 
each tank will contain a better quality of 
the colored earth than the one immediately 
behind them and the best quality will be 
that found in the tank which is the farthest 
away from the point where the raw mate- 



COLOKS 71 

rial as mined is first started into the set- 
tling tanks. 

This description only gives the prin- 
ciples governing the process of levigation. 
These may be applied in many ways from 
mere tubs to enormous settling pools. It 
is a simple question of size and the more 
or less ingenious arrangement made for 
its proper performance. 

51. When the clear water in the settling 
tanks appears it is a sign that it has 
parted with the particles of earth it carried 
and it is withdrawn. This leaves a wet 
pulpy mass which must be dried. In the 
more valuable colored earths, this pulp is 
pressed in filter presses. In most other in- 
stances, it is put into low metal tanks when 
it is exposed to heat in specially constructed 
drying rooms or else simply given plenty 
of time to drain and become air dried. The 
latter methods being chiefly used for the 
cheaper sorts. 

52. After the drying, especially those 
colors which have been dried bone hard in 



72 COLORS 

the '^dry houses '* are broken up, crushed 
and finely ground in the dry mills when 
they are packed in barrels as a rule but in 
some of the finer grades in boxes some- 
times when they are ready for the market. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON IX 

47. Some general remarks on mining 
earth colors! 

48. How are the lay of mine's strata? , 

49. What is levigation? 

50. How is the process of levigating 
performed? 

51. What is then done with the settled 
earth colors! 

52. How are they prepared for market. 



COLOKS 73 

LESSON X 

THE BROWN GROUP OF PIGMENTS CONTINUED 
RAW AND BURNT UMBERS 

Umhraufif G'er, Terre d' ombre, Fr. 

53. The preceeding lesson interrupted 
the examination of the umbers commenced 
in lesson VIII, but it was necessary to de- 
vote as much space as that in order that the 
process of mining and preparing the col- 
ored earth pigments be understood and as 
the same system is used in the getting out 
of all the others as well as in the mining 
of the umbers the same will be better un- 
derstood now when the other colored earths 
are examined and a simple reference to 
that lesson will be necessary. 

54. It was seen in lesson VIII that um- 
bers are pretty well disseminated all over 
the earth. The best specimens are sold un- 
der the name of Turkish umber and come 
from the island of Cyprus. This possesses 
a greenish hue in its raw state and is more 



74 COLORS 

highly prized by artists and decorators 
than any of the others. It stands to rea- 
son that nmbers which are disseminated 
over such a vast territory shonld vary con- 
siderably in their chemical composition es- 
pecially when it is a well known fact that 
even specimens taken from the same mine 
vary materially when taken from an up- 
per instead of a lower strata. There is no 
fixed standard possible under such condi- 
tions, at least not a chemical one. The 
coloring matter is due to dioxide of manga- 
nese and brown ferric oxide. Some speci- 
mens contains but little manganese oxides 
being mostly iron. The American umber 
being of this character. Again much um- 
ber that is sold under the name is rotten 
coal and the United States again is rich in 
this variety also. 

55. Eaw umber when ground in oil 
should have a greenish brown tone which 
when spread upon a piece of glass with 
the palette knife will be of a clear tone 
without any muddiness. It should be semi- 



COLOES 75 

transparent. When thinned out much with 
oil it should spread to a clear transparent 
film over the glass, free of speckiness 
which would indicate poor grinding and 
possibly adulteration but not necessarily. 

56. Burnt umber of good quality, say 
one made from such a raw umber as that 
above, can be more readily distinguished 
than in its raw condition. It should be 
free from redness — of a pleasing deep 
clear brown tone which when spread out 
upon the glass with the palette knife, will 
show semi-transparent and which upon fur- 
ther thinning will spread out to a uniform 
clear transparent film over the glass as 
stated for the raw umber in the former 
paragraph. 

57. Burnt umber as the name indicates 
is made by heating raw umber. This, how- 
ever, should not be carried too far espe- 
cially with those which are mostly of iron 
composition as when carried beyond a cer- 
tain point the brown oxide becomes con- 



76 COLOKS 

verted into a red oxide of iron and it would 
greatly decrease its value. 

The rotten ferruginous coal which is 
sometimes sold as umber is very difficult in 
the burning of it and has to be still further 
sophisticated in order to reduce its red- 
ness. The other American umbers are red- 
dish in their burnt state and are doctored 
up to hide it as much as possible. On ac- 
count of their undesirable tones such um- 
bers are mainly useful in preparing brown 
tints for which purpose they can be used 
advantageously on accou:nt of their low 
cost. 

58. Eaw and burnt umbers differing so 
much in their composition are likewise sub- 
ject to differ considerably in their peculiar- 
ities. Therefore it is not very strange to 
hear men who cannot praise them too 
highly while others again will be as loud in 
their denunciations. The raw umbers as 
a rule are fairly permanent and should be 
used more than they are as it is seldom that 
one will be found to fade, but with the 



COLORS 77 

burnt it is different. Good burnt umber 
is not so likely to change as those specimen 
;which are toned up artificially, yet there 
is a slow process going on in the best of 
them which will slightly change them in 
time. 

Some have the peculiarity seemingly to 
sink in, that is, tints made from them with 
white lead are likely to spot from that 
reason, the sinking in of the umber coloring 
matter in the lead tint. It has not faded 
as many erroneously suppose it has and 
it will be easy to prove it by simply pass- 
ing an oily rag over such spots, as that will 
instantly bring it back to its orignal color 
which it could not do if the color had really 
faded. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON X 

53. Eefers mostly to former lesson. 

54. Are all umbers of the same chem- 
ical composition? 

55. How are good specimens of raw um- 
ber to be distinguished ? 



78 COLOKS 

56. How is good burnt umber to be 
ascertained? 

57. How are burnt umbers made 1 

58. What are the peculiarities of raw 
and burnt umber? 



COLORS 79 

LESSON XI 

THE BROWN GROUP OF COLORS CONTINUED 
RAW AND BURNT SIENNA 

Sienna erde^ Ger. Terre de Sienne, Fr. 

59. Eaw and Burnt Siennas are placed 
in the brown group by courtesy, a sort of 
middle ground as neither are true browns, 
the raw could be placed in the yellow group 
and the burnt in the red; but then there 
they would be divided from each other and 
for the purpose of examination they should 
both be grouped together. The burnt be- 
ing of a dark reddish brown when ground 
in oil gave the opportunity to place them 
in the brown group especially as the raw 
has a brownish yellow tone too which can 
be strained into placing it there too, so 
there they are although the relationship 
as said, is a strained one. 

60. Both raw and burnt Siennas were 
well known to the ancient civilizations, 
but more so to the Eomans than to the 



80 COLOES 

Egyptians who used a very similar red but 
which may have been a natural red earth 
of about the same tone. Remains of paint- 
ing done with it in ancient relics of Eoman 
workmanship in Herculanum and Pompei, 
show that painters of that day well under- 
stood their value in artistic decoration. 
From the most remote times to the present 
there has been a continuous use made of 
them by all users of paint for both plain 
and decorative painting. 

61. Italy that favored sunny nation of 
southern Europe seems to have received 
more than its share of concealed beauty in 
the way of gems and hidden colored mar- 
bles, onyxes, precious stones and colored 
earths and some of its cities adjacent to 
which these colored earths were to be 
found have received additional honor by 
having had these earths named after them 
as the Venetian reds and the Siennas have. 

The City of Sienna also gives its name 
to a class of red veined marbles somewhat 
allied in tone with its colored earths. 



COLORS 81 

While colored earths similar to raw and 
burnt Siennas are to be found in all parts 
of the world, but few of them prove to be 
of as high quality as that which is im- 
ported from Italy. America has many beds 
of earth of a general character which will 
class them with Siennas, but, the tone 
should not be mentioned nor examined 
side and side on the same day. As with 
the umbers the American day has not 
dawned yet upon the find of a mine, that 
will equal, or even come anyways near, as 
good, as that imported from Italy. 

62, Eaw sienna owes its coloring matter 
to ferric oxide, that richest of all metals in 
the great variety of tones and hues, of reds 
and yellows, which it imparts to the vari- 
ous bases which hold them up and are 
known as colored earths. The composition 
of these strata of earth beds is so varied 
that it is impossible to find two specimens 
which would analyze exactly alike, so that 
there can be no chemical formula given 
which would be recognized even approxi- 



82 COLORS 

matively, for its constituent parts. The 
proportion of ferric oxide is about the same 
as in the umbers but that of manganese 
dioxide is much less, less than 1 per cent 
iwhile the umbers contain from 12 to 20 
per cent. They should be free from alu- 
mina, which would hurt their transparency. 

63. Burnt Sienna owes its beautiful red 
tone to heat. The raw Sienna owes its 
yellow tone to ferric-oxide, which is hy- 
drated. It has already been explained that 
when hydrated oxide of iron becomes 
heated that it looses its water of hydration 
and becomes the red oxide of iron. It is 
to this cause that this change is due. Other- 
wise both the raw and the burnt Sienna 
are identical in chemical composition, 

64. Both are permanent and unchange- 
able. Neither are affected by atmospheric 
changes of any kind, nor are they affected 
by sun or any artificial light. They can be 
mixed with perfect safety with any other 
pigments and will not be affected by them. 
The burnt after a long time may dinge up 



OOLOKS S3 



a trifle ; this is due to a double cause. It be- 
ing an iron oxide, the tendency is for the 
return to its more natural condition of an 
hydrated oxide in presence of moisture, but 
the process would require ages for its ter- 
mination. The other cause is the gradual 
darkening of the linseed oil which will 
* make the most permanent and unfading 
pigments look darker and dingy with time. 
65. Siennas both the raw and the burnt 
are seldom used for solid covering in their 
self tones, because of their transparency. 
In self painting they are used chiefly in 
glazing and shading and in imparting rich- 
ness of tone to colors of a yellow or red 
tone. They are used by sign painters in 
scroll work shading in gold and yellow. 
On account of their transparency, grainers 
and marblers prize them highly; in fact it 
would be impossible to replace them by 
any substitutes now known. Decorators in 
either oil or water colors use them largely 
and even house painters consume much of 
it in preparing tints, but they are not as 



84 COLORS 

indispensalble to tliem as to the other named 
branches. Coach painters use them in 
glazing and the wood finishers in stain- 
ing and coloring fillers ; so that their range 
of usefulness as stated is a wide one. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON X 

59. "What is said in a general way about 
Eaw and Burnt Siennas ? 

60. What use if any was made of them 
in antiquity! 

61. Where are the Siennas obtained? 

62. To what substances are due the col- 
oring matter in Siennas, and what is their 
chemical formula, if any? 

63. To what c^use is due the change of 
color in burnt Sienna? * 

64. What are the chief characteristics 
of the Siennas ? 

65. To what uses are they best fitted 
in painting? 



COLOKS ' 85 

LESSON XI 

THE BKOWN GROUP OF PIGMEITTS CONTINUED 

Vandyke Brown— C asset earth, Cologne 
earth, Collen earth, C asset erde, Ger. ; Brun 
de Vandyke, Fr. 

QiQ. The history of the past use of this 
pigment is uncertain and strange to have 
to say, even at this day, it is very doubt- 
ful if color experts would all agree upon 
what it really is. The reason of this is 
that in many parts of the world, what is 
sold as Vandyke brown is a ferruginous 
earth, in others again it is that plus some 
manganese and bituminous detritus, and 
again it is pulverized lignite. Importing 
it from various sections has only increased 
this chaotic confusion as to what it really 
is, so that it is impossible for it to have a 
chemical formula. 

• 67. It may be said of Vandyke brown, 
that the color that is known under that 
name, is a transparent brown of pleasing 



86 COLORS 

tone. It is not very permanent in water 
colors, but when protected by varnisb or 
mixed with linseed oil, it is much more 
durable. On account of its bituminous con- 
stituents no doubt, it is an anti-drying pig- 
ment to linseed oil and it should never be 
used without some good liquid, manganese 
drying japan added to it as otherwise, it 
will be sure to cause trouble on account 
of its anti-drying properties. 

68, Its chief uses in painting are for 
glazing mainly, being of a richer and more 
subdued brown than burnt umber, and 
much more transparent. It should never 
be used in the making of tints, for all the 
tones obtainable from it, can be supplied 
by the use of more permanent pigments 
To the grainer of walnut, it is a very valu- 
able pigment and it is also of good use to 
the hardwood finisher and to the sign 
painter in shading gold in scroll work. 

bistre— Bus shraun and Brauner lach, 
Oer. ; Bistre^ Fr. 

69. Some decorators occasionally use 



COLORS 87 

bistre in water color work. It is unfit to 
use in oil. It is prepared from the tarry 
soot of various woods. As it is not very 
permanent, its place can be supplied by 
other browns better in this respect when 
properly manipulated. So that it deserves 
to be let alone by decorators who care to 
have their work stand. 

Asphaltum — Antwerp brown, Mummy 
Asphalt braun, Ger. ; Asphalte, Fr. 

70. Asphaltum is a mineral pitch which 
varies greatly in its constituent parts. 
Church defines it thus, ^^ Asphalt is rather 
a mixture of minerals than a single min- 
eral varying in the character and propor- 
tion of its constituents. Essentially it con- 
sists of a number of liquid, semi-solid and 
solid colorless hydro-carbons (related to 
the paraffins,) associated with certain ill 
understood dark brown or black substances 
which constitute the useful part of the pig- 
ment 's raw material. ' ' 

When it is well prepared it will not 
crack, but, unfortunately it is not always 



88 COLOES 

"Well prepared, especially in oil. Its form 
best known is that of asphaltum varnisli 
thinned with benzine or naphtha, or with 
turpentine, the best of all. 

71. Its chief use in painting is for glaz- 
ing purposes being of a transparent red- 
dish brown when used thin, which becomes 
black by the addition of several coats su- 
peradded. Sign painters frequently use it 
in backing up gold work, but unless they 
arfe very sure of its quality it should not 
be depended upon for that purpose as it 
may crack and of course crack the gold 
with it and ruin it. 

It is used in enormous quantities in 
painting iron work, especially cast iron 
and steel; artillery ammunition, grates, 
tanks, registers; in fact most everything 
made of iron can be painted or dipped in 
it. It usually flows on well and runs to- 
gether smoothly, freeing it from brush 
marks and bakes into an enamel at a low 
heat. It sets very quickly and the asphal- 
tum when applied with a brush requires 



COLORS 89 

speed in order not to double up. The brush 
used should be frequently washed out in 
benzine in order to cleanse it or it will keep 
gathering dried asphaltum upon its surface 
until it will be little better than a mop. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON XI 

66. What is said in a general way con- 
cerning Vandyke brown? 

67. What are its chief characteristics? 

68. What are its uses in painting! 

69. What is said regarding bistre ? 

70. What are the general characteris- 
tics of asphaltum? 

71. What are the chief uses made of 
asphaltum in painting? 



90 COLOES ' 

LESSON XII 

THE BLUE GROUP OF PIGMENTS. 

72. The "blue group of pigments is a 
very important one to all classes of paint- 
ers in oil, japan or water color work, witli 
the exception of grainers, who are seldom 
called upon to reproduce an imitation of 
woods disguised in that color. While it is 
of great use, it is composed of but very few 
pigments. Ninety-nine per cent of all the 
blue paint used by the trade being confined 
to the two leading blue pigments first listed 
and examined below. 

73. The ancients were not lavish in 
their use of the blues for the very good rea- 
son that they did not have them to use, in 
profusion at least. The few indigenous 
plants which produced blue tints as Indigo 
fwere in all probabilities unknown to them. 
The Komans knew how to extract ultrama- 
rine blue from its matrix. Lapis Lazuli; 
which being regarded as a semi-precious 



COLOKS 91 

stone made the extracted blue cost a small 
fortune per pound. They had some blue 
dyes, however, which were extracted from 
vegetable matter and which was used in 
their encaustic painting, none being of a 
very bright tone. 

74. The more general use of the blue 
pigments in painting dates from the time 
when chemistry became a positive science 
which made possible the analysis of the 
natural blues and enabled their reproduc- 
tion by artificial means. Some again were 
accidentally stumbled upon, but all within 
the last two centuries. 

Prussian Blue.-^^^., Turner's blue, 
Antwerp Hue, Berlin blue, Prussiate of 
iron, Saxon blue, Pariser blau, Ger.; Bleu 
de Berlin, 

75. This very useful color is of com- 
paratively recent origin. It is due to an 
accidental discovery by Diesbach in 1714, 
who while seeking to obtain a precipitate 
from an alum solution used potash rectified 
with animal oil, obtaining a blue precipitate 



92 COLOES 

instead of a wMte one. The process was 
kept secret, but in 1724 Woodward dis-^ 
covered it and mad^ it public. It would 
take up too much space to give a full de- 
scription of the manufacture of Prussian 
blue. It will suffice to say that it is the 
product of a double precipitation which 
takes place at' the same moment: prussiate 
of iron and alumina. There are several 
systems used for the purpose of making it 
and there is considerable difference in the 
product. The better kind will be intensely 
blue and clear toned and in its dry cake 
condition shows a metallic bronze like re- 
flection which disappears w:hen mixed with 
foreign matter, therefore it is a pretty sure 
indication of purity. Again the precipitate 
may be of a muddy dirty blue of purplish 
tone which is of no use whatever. 

76. Prussian blue is very strong and 
also very transparent. On account of its 
strength of coloring matter it can be re- 
duced greatly and still show up its coloring, 
1 per cent of it mixed with 100 per cent of 



COLORS 93 

white lead will make a tint of a decided 
blue tone. If use by itself reduced to the 
proper consistency for application it shows 
up a very deep shade of blue black. To 
produce good tones of its clear blue it 
should be mixed with some white lead or 
better still with some good French zinc. 

77. Its usefulness is so great that it is 
hard to say to what a purpose it may not 
be used for wherever a blue is required in 
painting. It is at its best in oil painting 
however. In its soluble form of Chinese 
blue it can also be used in water color work. 
Being so very strong it is economical as a 
very little of it goes a long ways in prepar- 
ing tints. Agricultural implement manu- 
facturers use it in coating over the polished 
parts of steel in plows and other farming 
machinery. It is mixed with varnish for 
this purpose. The carriage trade use it 
also ground in japan but not to the same 
extent as other blues. As a glazing color, 
it is perfect on account of its transparency. 

78. With all its excellent qualities it 



94 COLOKS 

has some faults, grave ones at that. In the 
first place, sunlight hurts it so that it can- 
not be said to be absolutely permanent. It 
is turned into a greenish sickly blue by 
long exposure to direct sun rays. Its tints 
are also subject to the same trouble. Con- 
tact with lime instantly destroys its color 




also ; so its use upon fresh plastered walls 
is out of the question. When the lime has 
had some time allowed it to loose its caus- 
ticity, it is comparatively safe to use Prus- 
sian blue upon it, but why hazard doing 
so when our next blue is so perfectly safe 
upon it? 



coLoiis 95 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON XII 

q 72. What is said concerning the blue 
I group of pigments in general! 
i 73. Did the ancients use any of the 
blues in use today 1 

74. "When did the use of blue pigments 
become general 1 

75. What is Prussian blue f 

76. What are its characteristics? 

77. What are its uses! 

78. When should it not be used? 



96 COLOKS 

LESSON XIII 

THE BLUE GEOUP OF PIGMENTS C0ITTI:N'UED 

Ultramarine 'Blue— New blue; French 
blue; Permanent blue; Gmelin's blue; Gui- 
met's blue; Lapis Laeuli blau, Ger. ; Lazure- 
stein blau^ Grer. ; bleu d'Azur, Fr. ; Bleu d' 
Outremer, Fr. 

79. Ultramarine blue has qnite a num- 
ber of synonyms, which sometimes puzzle 
many persons as they naturally think them 
to be a different product when they really 
are identically the same. In English 
speaking countries the name of ultrama- 
rine is now universal but in reading the 
more ancient literature upon painting all 
these synonyms are used more or less and 
it is concerning these mainly that there 
may be any cause of misunderstanding 
arise. 

Ultramarine blue is a natural product 
and in the bygone ages was extracted 
from the semi-precious stone known as 



COLOES 97 

Lapis-Lazuli. Its cost therefore was very 
great, as much as $2.50 to $10.00 per ounce, 
and it is not to be wondered at that the 
painters were so stingy in their use of it. 

80. While chemistry has revealed the 
constituent parts composing the genuine 
ultramarine blue and has permitted its be- 
ing manufactured cheaply, artificially, the 
processes are very intricate, so that space 
will not permit going into the details of 
it. It is now manufactured in all parts 
of the world and the United States manu- 
factures an immense quantity of it, not a 
bit inferior to any that is made anywhere. 
As all the material which enters into its 
composition is cheap, it is not to be won- 
dered that its cost is so low. This consists 
of kaolin or China clay, silica, sodium 
sulphate, sodium carbonate, sulphur, rosin 
and charcoal; calcined alum is sometimes 
used instead of China clay. 

81. Ultramarine blue is made in a vari- 
ety of shades from the cleanest of true 
blue to reddish tones of blue on the purple 



98 COLOKS 

order. The former is of course that whicli 
is most highly esteemed of any. Some 
specimens have a decided greenish tone of 
bine and are known as green ultramarine 
and sold as such. Ultramarine is of fairly 
good opacity as compared with Prussian 
blue at least. It is useful in all kinds of ve- 
hicles, oil, japan, varnish and water colors 
and usually works well under the brush if it 
has been properly ground, otherwise it is 
coarse and specky. Owing to the base sub- 
stance with which it is connected in its 
preparation, it is possible to prepare it so 
as to make it much more transparent than 
it is usually manufactured. The carriage 
trade uses such in glazing and obtain beau- 
tiful effects from it in that kind of work. 
None, no matter whether transparent or 
opaque, has nearly the strength of coloring 
matter that is obtainable from a similar 
weight of Prussian, blue. Contrary to Prus- 
sian blue it is unaffected by lime and it may 
be mixed with it with impunity. It is af- 
fected by vinegar or weak solution of acet- 



COLOKS 99 

ic acid. A saturated cold solution of alum 
affects its coloring also. It has not yet re- 
ceived a chemical formula nor is it likely 
to very soon on account of its great varia- 
tion. 

82. It is used in water color work by 
calcimers, etc., much more than any other 
blue. On account of its unchangeableness 
except as noted, it is used in making blue 
tints in oil for situations outside exposed to 
sun light and inside also for the same rea- 
son. Its tints with white lead are not as 
good as those made with zinc white, the lat- 
ter showing them much clearer. The use 
of it made by the coach painters has al- 
ready been explained. The wall paper 
trade uses a great deal of it in printing and 
the paper manufacturers themselves use 
much of it in coloring their stock. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON XIII 

79. What is said of Ultramarine blue in 
general 1 



100 OOLOBS 

80. What is the composition of Ultra- 
marine blue ? 

81. What are its leading characteris- 
tics? 

82. What uses are mainly made of it in 
painting? 



COLOES 101 

LESSON XIV 

THE BLUE GROUP OF PIGMENTS CONTINUED 

Chinese Blue — Soluble blue, 

83. All that has been said of Prussian 
blue can be fully applied to Chinese blue. 
Its chemical composition being the same, 
with the one exception that it is soluble in 
water while Prussian blue is not. Its 
use in painting is very restricted, being 
used only in water colored work. It is 
found ground in oil in some of the cata- 
logues, but it is only to pad up a longer list 
as Prussian blue being of the same color 
and insoluble is better in that medium. Its 
chief utility imder the name of soluble blue 
is in the making of bluing for the washing 
of clothes. 

Cobalt Blue — Zinc blue; Kobalt blau, 
Ger. ; Bleu de Cobalt, Fr. ; Bleu de Thenar d, 
Fr. 

84. Cobalt blue is of a soft pleasing 
medium tone of blue ; not so deep as ultra- 



102 COLOKS 

marine blue. That is that 's what it is when 
pure. The possibility of finding it pure is 
very slim, as it is usually prepared from a 
good clear blue toned ultramarine to which 
is added zinc white in order to reduce its 
intensity and depth to that of the genuine 
cobalt blue which it will then resemble so 
closely, that experts will be fooled and are 
not able to distinguish the genuine from 
the other. 

The properties of cobalt blue being about 
the same as that of ultramarine blue which 
has been described at length in the preced- 
ing lesson the student is referred to that as 
to the uses to which cobalt blue is best 
adapted. 

Ceruleun— (7oe/m; Cerulian.; Cerulean 
blue; Coelin blau, Ger. ; Bleu celeste, Fr. 

85. Ceruleun is an oxide of tin which 
has been moistened up with a cobalt nitrate 
solution to which a strong heat has been 
applied. The residue is a greenish blue 
mass which is crushed, washed and cleaned. 
There are other methods in preparing it, 



COLOKS 103 

the relating of which, must be dispensed 
"with, as there is so little of it used in its 
real self, as to be even a question why it 
should be listed at all. In tone it is a green- 
ish blue of about the same tone as much of 
the green ultramarine is. In fact, about 
all the coeruleum blue sold as artists ' color 
in tube is compounded from greenish ultra- 
marine and zinc white in the same manner 
as related for cobalt blue. Any one can 
prepare a tint of it to suit himself from the 
ultramarines without paying a big price 
for it under the name of Ceruleun in tubes. 

Chessylite— -5/i^e verditer; Bice; Moun- 
tain blue; Azurite; Berg hlau, Ger. ; Cen- 
dres tleu, Fr. 

SQ, This color is derived from copper 
and is named from the locality in France, 
Chessy from which it is chiefly obtained in 
its natural state. It can be prepared arti- 
ficially, but the artificial product is more 
likely to change than the natural. Since 
the introduction of the ultramarine blues, 
it has been losing ground greatly, having 



104 COLOKS 

become nearly unknown even by name to 
most decorators, as all the tints and tones 
obtainable from it are readily made from 
ultramarine blue. 

Many other blues differing but little from 
tbe above but known locally in certain parts 
of tbe world might be added to swell the 
list. As may be inferred there are none of 
real importance now as the great variations 
in the tones of ultramarine enable the 
painter to reproduce any of them and to 
produce any shades and tints of blue pos- 
sible to be made and what is not obtainable 
from ultramarine can be made from Prus- 
sian blue. It is therefore, recommended 
to students to confine themselves to these 
two stand-bys and not to worry over the 
array of names he may see in some of the 
catalogues of artists' tube colors, as he 
does not need them, for most of them are 
simply tints of the two blues mentioned to 
which more or less white has been added. 

Indigo and blues derived from vegetable 
matter are usually fugitive and the shades 



COLORS 105 

tliey represent can easily be made by com- 
pounding the standard blues with black or 
other colors. 



QUESTIONS ON LESSON XIV 

83. What is Chinese blue and what is 
it best adapted to ! 

84. What are the peculiarities of Cobalt 
blue? 

85. What is said regarding ceruleum? 

86. What other blues are sometimes 
used in decorative work? 



106 COLOES 

LESSON XV 

THE GREEN GROUP OF PIGMENTS 

Chrome green in all shades ; Many fancy 
proprietary names, 

87. The green group of pigments con- 
tains many more pigments than the blue 
group, but when it comes to the use made 
of them even among decorators the list is 
cut down to but few, and of those one only 
is used extensively as it is made in an 
endless variety of shades and hues which 
cover the whole field of greens fully. As 
will be seen several of the greens are nat- 
ural pigments but the most valuable ones 
are made chemically and are the produo- 
tion of the color maker. 

88. The ancients made use of greens in 
both print and dyes and many remains of 
painted ornamentation may be seen upon 
the Egyptian sarcophagi in the many 
museums containing them. The remains 
of Eoman mural paintings done at the time 



COLORS 107 

just previous to tlie destruction of Pompeii 
and Herculaneum show that at that period 
they must have been well known and in 
general use for that purpose. It was re- 
served however for our more recent chem- 
ical age to produce the ones which are now 
used so profusely. 

89. Some of the naturally produced 
greens are very good, but rather costly and 
difficult to handle. Most of them are of 
metallic derivation combined with various 
substances. Others again are colored 
earths, none of which being of any great 
value, as the tones are very dull and unat- 
tractive and useful only in a very limited 
way in water color work. Their total loss 
would not be felt by the trade, as such tones 
as they possess can be easily made from 
other greens which are much easier to 
handle. 

Chrome Green— in many shades; also 
sold under many proprietary names too 
numerous to mention. 

90. This green is of recent origin ; nat- 



108 , COLOES 

Tirally it is more recent than Prussian blue 
and Chrome yellow from which it is made, 
either by compounding by trituration or by 
using the chemical equivalents of the two 
pigments mentioned and precipitating the 
solutions of the chemical equivalents to- 
gether. In other words, it is a compound 
color due to the mixing together of blue and 
yellow. 

91. It stands to reason that anything 
which is inimical to either one of the two 
pigments which compose it but which do 
not form a new combination with it must 
act injuriously upon Chrome greens. So 
that it has a double load to carry and to be 
guarded against; all substances disagree- 
ing with either one or the other will be 
sure to act injuriously. This liability to 
have something or another happen it has 
prejudiced many people against its use in 
the past. While it is admitted that 
Chrome green is not nearly as permanent 
a color as it could be wished to be, at the 
same time, it cannot be spared. Many im- 



COLORS 109 

provements have been made in tlie pro- 
cesses of its manufacture and the coloring 
matter fixed, at least better fixed than it 
used to be, so that under ordinary circum- 
stances and when not placed where its ene- 
mies may have direct access to it, it is 
fairly safe to use. The enormous use made 
of it in wagon and agricultural implement 
painting shows that it can be used success- 
fully and that it will hold its color in ^ood 
shape a long time. 

92. According as to which of the two 
colors — yellow and blue — which predomi- 
nates in the green, its hue will be bluish or 
yellowish, and these two divisions are well 
understood to the color trade. 

Again, the Chrome yellows are divided 
into at least three gradations, to wit: 
Light, which is of a grass green tone; 
Medium, which is the usual tone, and Deep, 
which is a dark shade of it. Many color 
manufacturers make it up into six shades 
for the trade, which make a more progres- 
sive gamut up the scale of intensity. But 



110 COLOKS 

it is not in six nor ten shades tliat it may be 
found, bnt in that of many hundreds or 
thousands, as the shades of Chrome yel- 
lows themselves vary much and so does 
that of the Prussian blue. It is no won- 
der then that Chrome green has been made 
to replace all other greens, and, as said be- 
fore, that it cannot be spared no matter 
what its faults may be. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON XV 

87. What is said in a general way re- 
garding the Green group of pigments 1 

88. What did the ancient civilizations 
know about greens? 

89. Are natural green pigments derived 
solely from metallic sources? 

90. What is said about the composition 
of Chrome green? 

91. Have manufacturers discovered bet- 
ter methods of fixing its coloring matter ? 

92. What are the shades into which 
Chrome greens are usually sold? 



COLOKS 111 

LESSON XVI 

THE GKEEN GROUP OF PIGMENTS — CONTINUED 
CHROME GREENS — CONTINUED 

93. The uses made of Chrome green by 
the trade cover the whole field of painting 
in oil, in japan by the car and carriage 
trades, and in water colors by all classes 
of decorators. It is hardly worth while 
specializing the several uses that are made 
of them, for it includes them all, to the 
making of tints for the house painter for 
adorning the outside of residences. 

94. Chrome green, when pure, is an ex- 
tremely strong color, partaking in this 
respect of both its parents, which are very 
strong in coloring matter. Chrome yellow 
being very opaque corrects the transpar- 
ency of the Prussian blue. It is so strong 
that Chrome green is seldom found pure, 
nor is it necessary that it should be, as it 
is mostly used for painting in its self color, 
when 25 per cent, of pure color plus 75 per 



112 COLOES 

cent, of barytes or other reducer added 
will make four times the weight of color 
which will cover three times as much sur- 
face solidly as the original amount of 
Chrome green put in. So by mutual con- 
sent of the trade, commercial Chrome green 
consists only of that amount of pure color, 
and so do all the proprietary greens made 
from it. This is allowable, as it reduces 
the cost to the purchaser. As lime is in- 
imical to Prussian blue, so it is to Chrome 
green and will completely kill the Prussian 
blue in its composition, the Chrome yellow 
remaining unchanged. On the other hand. 
Chrome yellow being a combination of 
chromate of potash and white lead or some 
other lead salt is affected by sulphuretted 
hydrogen gases and turned to a black sul- 
phide of lead. Chrome green should not 
be used under such adverse conditions. 

Green Oxide of Claromiwoii— Chromium 
sesquioxide — Opaque oxide of chromium', 
Grunes chromoxyd, Ger. ; Vert de Chrome, 
Fr. 



COLOKS 113 

95. This is really tlie only green en- 
titled to the name of Chrome green and in 
Europe is the only one that is called by 
that name. As it is seldom that any one 
calls it by that name, here in the United 
States at least, and as it was seen in the 
description given of Chrome green that 
the name is nsed here to designate an en- 
tirely different pigment, so the scientific 
name is used in order that there be no con- 
fusion. 

It is not likely to ever come into rivalry 
iwith the other, as this genuine Chrome 
green is a very expensive pigment owing 
to the intricate processes of its manufac- 
ture. It will suffice to say that it is made 
by two different processes— the one wet 
and the other dry. That made by the wet 
process is the sesquioxide and is transpar- 
ent; that made by the dry being opaque. 
It is more permanent than what is Imown 
as Chrome green here, but its cost is such 
that artists only can afford its use. 

Cobalt GYeei[k--Zinc Green; Pinhham's 



114 COLOES 

green; Kohalt-grun, Ger. ; Vert de Cobalt, 
Fr. ; Vert de Zinc, Fr. 

96. Cobalt green is an excellent pig- 
ment wMcli deserves to be used mncb more 
tban it is. If it is being manufactured 
here it must be a late occurrence, as the 
author is not aware of it. As the name in- 
dicates, it is a product of a combination of 
cobalt and a salt of zinc which is made by 
fusion and by various other methods. It 
is very permanent. Its shades have a blu- 
ish tinge in them and a softness hard to 
match by toning and compounding other 
blues. 

It is unaffected by the enemies of Chrome 
greens and has none of its own, therefore 
should be used more than it is in interior 
decorating in oil or water colors and should 
have its place in carriage and automobile 
work also. 

Yiridiidin.— Emerald oxide of Chromium; 
Mittler's Grun, Ger.; Vert Panettier, Fr. ; 
Vert de Guimet, Fr. 

97. Since this is a close relative chemi- 



COLOKS 115 

cally at least of 'Hrue Chrome green," be- 
ing an hydrated sesquioxide of chromium, 
it is to be expected that it is also quite per- 
manent. It is unaffected by sulphuretted 
hydrogen gas, or by the action of sunlight. 
It is an ideal pigment for glazing for the 
carriage trade on account of its transpar- 
ency and would no doubt be used more 
than it is by decorators but for its greater 
cost than Chrome green. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON XVI 

93. What use of Chrome green is made 
iby the trade? 

94. What are its peculiarities? 

95. What are the properties of green 
'oxide of chromium? 

96. What is Cobalt green and what are 
its uses? 

97. What is said regarding yiridian 
and its properties? 



IIG COLOKS 

LESSON XVII 

THE GKEEN GROUP OF PIGMENTS— COiN^TINUED 

Verdigris — Basic copper acetate; Gruns- 
pan, Ger. ; Vert de gris, Fr. ; Vert de Mont- 
pelliers, Fr. 

98. A pigment mucli used in the past, 
but which is seldom used now. It is a basic 
acetate of copper and therefore a poison- 
ous compound. It is very transparent and 
as a glazing color it still has its uses in the 
carriage trade. It is one of the main com- 
ponent parts in all anti-fouling prepared 
paints used in the painting of the hulls of 
vessels and is supposed to kill the barna- 
cles which attach themselves to it. It 
is produced principally in southern France 
from the grape pomace spread upon copper 
sheets, and gradually corrodes them, and 
after various manipulations, cleanings, 
etc., it is ready for market. Its use has 
dwindled down to such a low degree that 
but few of the color manufacturers list it 



COLOKS 117 

now, as the demand is too small for them to 
pay for the listing. 

Malachite — Green Verditer; Green 
Bice, Mountain green; Green carbonate of 
Copper; Berg grun, Ger.; Vert de mon- 
tagne, Fr. ^ 

99. But that this pigment is frequently 
named in the older and a few of more re- 
cent books on painting and that it is sold 
under the several synonyms given above in 
artists' tube colors, it certainly would not 
have received any notice in this manual. 
It is very poisonous and should have no 
place in the decorator's palette. The 
space given it will be therefore to warn 
against its use, as it can well be spared. 

Paris Green— Emerald green; Cupric 
aceto-arsenite; ScJiweinfurtz grun, Ger.; 
Yert Paul Verome, Fr. 

100. Another very poisonous green 
which should be shunned by every one who 
values life and health. Some painters can- 
not work with it at all and turn deadly sick 
from the mere working with it, no matter 



118 COLOES 

how careful they are not to absorb it 
tbrongb the bare skin. 

It is a pity that it is so, for it has a most 
vividly beautiful transparent tone and it is 
wonderful what effects are produced from 
its use as a glaze over another green. It 
enriches it to a remarkable degree. The 
carriage trade use it for a glaze on fancy 
wagon work, but it is being replaced now 
by the use of specially prepared aniline 
colors. 

In England it is known only as Emerald 
green, so that greens imported from there 
under that name are nothing else but the 
deadly Paris green. There should be a 
law passed preventing its use for wagon 
painting, as after the varnish which pro- 
tects it is worn persons can easily be poi- 
soned by merely rubbing their hands over 
the unprotected paint, and children espe- 
cially will touch and rub the beautiful color 
and are likely to be poisoned by it. 

Terre Yerte— Green earth; Grun erde, 
Ger. ; Terre de Verone, Fr. 



COLOKS 119 

101. Is a natural product to be found in 
many parts of the Old and New World, but 
not in as profuse a manner as the reds, 
yellows and browns. These natural earths 
vary greatly in tone and in composition. It 
is not a new pigment, having been made use 
of by all the older civilizations. None of 
its tones are vivid, hardly decided Enough 
to be placed in the tertiary color class. 
Their constituent parts vary greatly, but 
their chief ones consist of iron to which is 
due the coloring (ferous oxide), and silica, 
which is present in all samples in varying 
quantities. 

It could be readily dispensed with and 
never missed, as any tones produced from 
it can easily be reproduced by mixtures of 
other earth colors of brown and yellows 
with the addition of blues or Chrome green. 

102. All other greens may be included 
in the many new ones appearing under a 
bewildering array of fancy names, which 
are produced by the preparing and com- 
pounding of the green anilines. Some are 



120 COLORS 

very good and durable, while others are 
not. Science has not said its last word rcr 
garding the colors obtainable from coal tar, 
and possibly as good greens and other col- 
ors may be brought to light as the alizarin, 
purpurin, and the madder lakes. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON XVII 

98. What is verdigris and what are its 
uses ? 

99. What is said of Malachite and its 
uses? 

100. What is Paris green and what is 
said regarding its uses? 

101. What is said of terre verte? 

102. What is said of other greens? 



COLORS 121 

LESSON XVIII 

THE RED GROUP OP PIGMENTS 

YeYm.illion—Cinnehar; English Vermil- 
lion; Quicksilver vermillion; Chinese Ver- 
million; Zunoher, Ger. ; Vermilion, Fr. 

103. When the word vermillion pure 
and simple is now nsed, shorn of any extra 
designations under which it is known 
mainly locally, it means the pure quicksil- 
ver product. It is either the Pale or the 
Dark — the one being a nearly pure scarlet 
tone, and the dark or deep that having a 
magenta or amaranth tone, the pale being 
very opaque, the dark less so but far from 
being transparent. Vermillion is both a 
natural and an artificially made product. 
It has been known from times immemorial 
in China and a certain middling deep tone 
of it is still imported from China, or made 
here and packed so as to resemble the im- 
ported. Under the form of cinnabar it is 



122 COLOES 

found in the quicksilver mines of both Eu- 
rope and America. 

104. Its manufacture is easily under- 
stood, yet there is quite a lot of manipula- 
tions of an intricate character connected 
with its right preparation which require 
skill and a good knowledge of its processes 
in order to produce a perfect article. Cin- 
nabar is the native sulphuret of mercury 
and is found very pure in its native condi- 
tion. Little of it finds it way to our mar- 
ket, what is sold here being the manufac- 
tured article. The manufacturer simply 
follows out nature in his processes; he 
turns the quicksilver into a sulphuret. This 
is very easily done by placing together 21 
parts of quicksilver to 4 parts of sulphur 
and agitating them together in a revolving 
cylinder until there is no more reaction. 

This produces, however, anything but a 
red pigment. On the contrary, it is black 
—a black sulphuret of quicksilver, differ- 
ent in no way from the red excepting that 
it is black. Black is the natural condition 



COLOKS 123 

of snlphuret of mercury, and to give it its 
beautiful red tone, it has to be put through 
a series of manipulations requiring skill 
and knowledge of what is required. This 
black sulphuret is sublimed in vertical cyl- 
inders which are connected with receivers 
and when sufficiently heated the quicksilver 
condenses as cinnabar near the retorts' 
heads. The various processes are too in- 
tricate for this manual and really belong to 
a treatise on color making. It will suffice 
to know how it is prepared for the present 
purpose and the process of its manufacture 
indicates one of the causes why vermillion 
darkens, i.e., that it is always trying to re- 
turn to its more natural state of a black 
sulphuret, which is its proper condition be- 
fore sublimation. 

105. Owing to its bright shades of red, 
vermillion is very useful in painting, but 
while it is of prime importance for situa- 
tions where such bright shades can be 
utilized, this very extreme brightness car- 
ries its own limitations. Nature itself, 



124 COLORS 

with, all its profusion of colors, confines 
such bright reds to a few flowers, and their 
chief object seems to be to enliven an other- 
wise tame environment. This is really 
where it is most useful in decorating. 
For the painting of large Surfaces its use 
is limited to that of the front of tea stores 
and such, who have adopted it as a trade 
mark color to designate their business. 
The wagon and agricultural implement 
trade use it largely, but usually it is the 
imitations that they employ, of which more 
will be said further on. The pale, having 
more body or being more opaque than the 
deeper shades, is used exclusively in the 
striping of carriages. 

106. Before the introduction of the imi- 
tation Vermillion reds, it was used to a 
much greater extent than it is now. This 
is due to two causes : 1°. Its cost is much 
greater than the others. 2°. Its tendency 
to darken caused by its seeking to return 
to its more natural black sulphuret form. 
To the above must also be added that it is 



COLOKS 125 

not desirable as a water color pigment, as 
when left unprotected by varnish this dark- 
ening process is greatly hastened. 

107. Vermillion is a very heavy pig- 
ment, therefore precipitates quickly. It 
separates from the oil used in grinding it 
in a short time, therefore it is best to buy it 
in its dry state and to mix it as wanted. 
Like all crystallic pigments, very fine 
grinding has a tendency to reduce their 
brightness by destroying the reflective 
power of the prismatic crystals. It is usu- 
ally safe to use with most all other pig- 
ments. The lower qualities of it which 
contain free sulphur sometimes are an ex- 
ception, as pigments upon which that sub- 
stance exerts a baneful influence would be 
affected by it. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON XVIII 

103. "What is said of vermilion in gen- 
eral? 

104. What are the methods used in its 
preparation? 



126 COLOKS 

105. What uses are made of vermilion 
in painting? 

106. Is it used now as mucJi as formerly 
and why? 

107. What aye its chief eharacteristies? 



COLORS 127 

LESSON XIX 

! THE EED GEOUP OF PIGMENTS — CONTINUED 
THE VERMILION REDS 

108. The reds named: Vermilion reds 
are of rather recent origin. They came in 
the wake of the discovery! of the coal tar 
colors. At the beginning they were very 
inferior, as then the better colors derived 
from coal tar were unknown and the ver- 
milion reds which depended upon them for 
their coloring matter could not be any bet- 
ter than the source to which they owed 
their existence. ^'-— - 

109. All these reds are the product of 
coal tar coloring matter added to a base 
which may be of most any white substance 
and in a few instances the base may be 
orange mineral. These bases are dyed 
with the coloring matter of the coal tar dye. 
Some bases absorb more coloring than oth- 
ers, hence the many variations in tone and 
intensity. Again the same base may be 



128 COLORS 

[made to produce various qualities of ver- 
milion red. For instance, if the fugitive 
red aniline is used, the vermilion red will 
also be a short-lived one; if, on the con- 
trary, a paraniline red of good quality is 
used, or Alizarin, the red will be called, in 
comparison, permanent. "White lead makes 
a good base for the deeper tones of vermil- 
lion reds that are opaque, while, strange as 
it may sound, the orange mineral reds only 
produce the lighter shades— the scarlet 
ones. Again, if the base is a transparent 
base, as the silicas or alum will produce 
the transparent shades of the vermillion 
reds and they could appropriately be called 
lakes. It is not to be wondered at, then, 
at the great variations in tone, quality, etc., 
to be found among the vermilion reds and 
of the many friends they have and at their 
having almost supplanted it. 

110. It has already been explained that 
the vermilion reds were either good or 
bad, according to the character of the red 
dye employed in their coloring. They can 



COLORS 129 

be no better than the source from which 
they spring. We have also seen that they 
are both opaque, semi-transparent or 
transparent, according to their bases par- 
taking of their characters. The good 
qualities are excellent and have nearly dis- 
placed the pure quicksilver vermilions. 
This not only because of their lower cost^ 
but also because they are in reality more 
permanent and show no tendency to dark- 
ening as true vermilions do. 

111. For all uses but that of striping,, 
where the pale true vermilion excels them 
in opaqueness, enabling the striper to do 
his lining in one single coat and cover per- 
fectly over black, which these will not do. 
The carriage painters, wagon and automo- 
bile factories use it in immense quantities, 
but probably the agricultural implement 
trade uses larger quantities of it than any 
other, as it seems to be the one color which 
they must think surpasses all others in put- 
ting their machinery upon its best footing 
to sell. 



130 COLORS 

It is useful to tliein in any form they de- 
sire to have it : For dipping, a vermilion 
^ red is nsed with a light body that will be 
held in suspension a long time ; for painting 
' out with a brush, the heavy opaque lead 
based ones fill the requirements. 

Decorators use them in all their many 
shades and compound them with lakes to 
produce many others suitable to their use 
and the house painter uses them for the 
painting of the exterior of the loud kind 
in demand by tea and many grocery stores. 

American Vermilion — Chromate of 
lead, 

112. The so-called American vermilion 
is a chromate of lead. It is of crystallic 
formation and to this is due of whatever 
brilliancy it may possess, therefore it 
should never be ground fine. Before the 
introduction of the vermilion reds it was 
extensively used in wagon painting and in 
the painting of agricultural implements. 
Alongside of the vermilion reds they look 
like a brown, being very inferior in the 



COLORS 131 

scarlet tone wMcli the others show to such* 
a good degree ; therefore, like many others, 
they belong to the class of the ^'have been'* 
and are little nsed to-day. The above no- 
tice will suffice for them, as they may be 
said to have become obsolete. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON XIX 

108. What is said of the vermilion reds 
in general ? 

109. How are they made? 

110. What are their characteristics? 

111. What nses are made of them in 
painting? 

112. What is said of American ver- 
milion? 



132 COLOES 

LESSON XX 

THE RED GEOUP OF PIGMENTS — CONTINUED 

Venetian Red — Rouge; Crocus; Colco- 
thar; Burnt Ocre; Sinoper, Ger. ; Rouge de 
Venice, Fr. ; Ochre rouge, Fr. 

113. As the name would seem to indi- 
cate, Venetian red is supposedly an earth- 
colored red produced in the vicinity of that 
city-upon-the-sea— Venice. None is, nor 
probably has ever been, imported into 
America from there in commercial quanti- 
ties, at least— so much, then, for a name. 
Red earths have been used from time im- 
memorial in the painting and decorating of 
surfaces by all past civilizations, with small 
wonder at the fact, because of their univer- 
sal distribution everywhere. All these 
earth reds owe their coloring matter to fer- 
ric oxide and, as must be supposed vary 
greatly in the kinds of base holding up the 
color and in the kind and quality of the 
color itself. So much variation in fact as to 



COLOKS 133 

make it impossible to give a definition of 
what it really is. 

114. Most persons naturally suppose 
that the naturally produced Venetian reds 
must be superior in quality to that which 
is made artificially but in this they are 
greatly mistaken. It was seen that the 
natural product is an unknowable quantity ; 
not so, however, with the artificially made 
article. Its component parts can be guar- 
anteed to be ^^ semper idem/' or about as 
nearly alike as two peas are said to be to 
each other. 

115. Venetian red is made upon various 
bases ; barytes, whiting and gypsum. The 
last is the best, but the most difficult to 
handle in the manufacture. The coloring 
matter being ferric oxide produced in dif- 
ferent ways by the concentration of pick- 
ling fluids used in wire works and roasting 
the precipitate sulphate of iron. Crocus 
again the product of roasting iron pyrites, 
etc., the processes are not difficult, but in 
order to pay must be carried on upon a 



134 COLORS 

large scale, as tlie Venetian red is sold at a 
very low price wliich would not pay the ex- 
pense of manufacturing it on a small scale. 

By common consent and usage Venetian 
red is supposed to contain from 20 to 25 
per cent, of ferric oxide to 75 per cent, of its 
base. That made from barytes is the poor- 
est in quality. That made from whiting 
works best and smoothest, but that made on 
the gypsum base is the most durable. If 
a mixture of 25 per cent, of whiting is 
added to it to make it work smoothly it will 
be better still. 

116. The qualities are better known 
here under the names of English, which 
designates the best, and that of American, 
which is used for the poorer grades. It 
matters not that to-day but little if any 
Venetian red is imported from England, 
and that as good Venetian red is made here 
as anywhere in the world, the name has 
become a trade mark of quality and is put 
upon the headings of the barrel at the 



COLOBS 135 

iAmerican factory without a pang of re- 
morse. So much for a name, again. 

117. The artificially prepared Venetian 
reds are perfectly reliable. Being uniform 
in quality there is no trouble in duplicating 
them again in any quality wanted. The 
color is usually well fixed. Like all burnt 
colors, however, which owe their origin to 
iron, they are likely to dinge a trifle in 
time, as the oxide has a tendency to imbibe 
moisture and to become more or less hy- 
drated. Some of this change is also due 
to linseed oil darkening with time ; but all 
colors, no matter how permanent they may 
be, are affected by the latter cause. 

118. Venetian red is used for a great 
multitude of purposes, in oil, in japan and 
in water color painting. This color in its 
better shades are good self tones of red 
subdued sufficiently so as to be used for 
the exterior work of brick buildings in cit- 
ies and in the country, of barns and out- 
houses which are painted in its self color. 
It is used for the preparation of a number 



136 COLORS 

of tints, and is one of tlie indispensable 
colors used by all painters, no matter in 
what branch of painting they may be en- 
gaged. Decorators and artists are not ex- 
cepted from the list, as it is useful to them 
in all kinds of medium. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON XX 

113. What is said of Venetian red? 

114. Are artificially made Venetian 
reds much used? 

115. How is Venetian red made? 

116. What is understood by English 
and American Venetian red? 

117. What are the characteristics of 
Venetian red? 

118. What are its chief uses ? 



COLORS 137 

LESSON XXI 

THE EED GROUP OF PIGMENTS — CONTINUED 

Eed OGhie—Red hematite; Red iron 
ore; Ruddle; Scarlet Ochre; Red chalk; 
Terra rosa; Miltos; Ruhrica; Sinopis; Sin- 
oper; Ochre roth, Ger. ; Ochre rouge, Fr. 

119. Here we have a red with enough 
synonyms to swamp it, so this may be one 
of the many reasons why it is as little used 
as it is by the painting trade ; but as it is 
still listed under its proper name and many 
of its synonyms in artists' catalogues of 
tube colors, it was necessary to give it the 
short notice it receives in this manual. 

120. Eed ochre is a natural earth which, 
at some time or other in bygone ages, be- 
came changed by heat from a yellow ochre 
to its red tone by loosing its water of hy- 
dration during this heating process in a 
manner similar to that of a brick kiln where 
the yellow clay is turned into a red brick by 
the same agency. 



138 COLORS 

121. All these natural red oelires are 
very uncertain in their composition. What 
was said in paragraphs 113 to 118 apply to 
it and all its synonyms. In short, Venetian 
reds of good quality, artificially made and 
of uniform composition, are very much su- 
perior and reliable. They are made in all 
possible shades that any of the ochre natu- 
ral earths might have and no one will or 
can go wrong by substituting it every time 
they may think that it should be used, as 
it is practically one and the same thing. 

Indian red— Persian red; Indian red 
ochre; Indische roth, Ger. ; Rouge d'Inde, 
Fr. 

122. Is an old pigment; so old in fact 
that its history dates back to prehistoric 
times. Its traces are found in all remains 
of ancient painting done by the older and 
continuously to the present time. Its 
names are many, but all apply to the same 
article known under the present name in 
America, these synonyms being merely 



COLOKS 139 

those of certain localities from whence they 
were shipped. 

123. Indian red is a rich hematite iron 
ore. None so far has been discovered 
either in Europe or America that ap- 
proaches the Asiatic product in the rich- 
ness of its tones— that is, in its natural 
state. The coloring matter is due to the 
agency of peroxide of iron. Most of it is 
made artificially, chemistry having enabled 
the manufacturer to produce at will an ar- 
ticle which is more uniform than the natu- 
ral and he is able to obtain in an artificial 
way what nature had not done in our west- 
ern hemisphere. 

124. Indian reds, especially the artifi- 
cially made ones, are remarkably strong in 
coloring matter. Unlike the natural, in 
which there is a considerable variation in 
its component parts it is perfectly uniform ; 
so much so that none is recognized as pure 
that does not analyze at least 95 per cent, 
of pure peroxide of iron and much of it 
will run up to 97 and 98 per cent. It is 



140 COLORS 

made by roasting, mucli in the same way 
that is nsed in preparing the crocus used in 
the manufacture of Venetian red— the proc- 
ess itself being a detail of more interest 
to manufacturers than to the consumers, 
besides too lengthy for a comprehensive 
description, is dispensed with. Indian red 
as all other ferric oxide red pigment has a 
peculiarity which is common to all, that the 
ligher its tone the stronger it is, the darker 
being always deficient in this regard. All 
shades are very durable, the slow change 
to a darker tone being due to the darkening 
of the linseed oil, but not to the pigment. 

125. It is used by all classes of painters, 
for oil, japan or water color work, with 
good success. It is most useful in the pro- 
ducing of tints with whites, however, as in 
its self color it is surpassed by the Tuscan 
reds, the pale Indian reds producing the 
rose and pinkish shades, while the dark, 
the violet or lilac shades. They make very 
clean toned tints which would require a 
lake to produce from any of the other fer- 



COLOES 141 

rio oxide red pigments. It is also em- 
ployed as a base in compounding tlie Tus- 
can reds. The carriage trade uses it as a 
ground to be glazed over with an enriching 
color. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON XXI 

119. What is said of red ochre 1 

120. How are ochres changed to red? 

121. What pigment is better substituted 
for them? 

122. Is Indian red a pigment of recent 
origin? 

123. What is Indian red and how is it 
produced? 

124. What are its characteristics? 

125. What are its uses in painting? 



142 COLOKS 

LESSON XXII 

» 

THE EED GROUP OF PIGMENTS — CONTINUED 

Tuscan Eeds— 

126. Tuscan red is a compounded color. 
Its name would indicate an Italian origin, 
and to a limited extent it has. It is not 
a natural color, and its tone is due to cer- 
tain lakes added to another and lesser rich 
red. The Tuscans had a predilection for 
that tone of red and it became a distinctive 
color, as much so and no more than ' ' Terra 
cotta ' ^ may be said to be a Chicago color. 

127. The base used in manufacturing it 
is Indian red, but as that is too strong in 
coloring matter, which must be reduced in 
order that it may absorb the enriching dye 
or lake. This is done by the addition of 
some white earth, whiting, china clay, or 
some other. The dry component parts are 
finely powdered and stirred up in a vat 
containing water to which is added the dye 
equivalent to the lake that the painters 



COLORS 143 

would use in mixing it up. The agitation 
is kept up for a time and then the com- 
pound is allowed to settle, the water drawn 
off and the pulp dried after filtering, when 
it is dry ground to be either sold so or is 
mixed with oil or japan and ground for the 
use of the coach or house painters and dec- 
orators in oil. Many shades are thus ob- 
tained, some light, some dark. They are 
usually averaged up in three shades : Light, 
medium and dark. 

128. It stands to reason that Tuscan 
red may be either good or bad according to 
the character of the substances which com- 
pose it. If made from a poor Indian red 
to which is added a cheap aniline red, its 
tone will be fleeting, however rich it may 
look when first applied. If made from 
Alizarin, on the contrary, a permanent pig- 
ment is produced which will stand sunlight 
and over 350 degrees of heat without chang- 
ing it, so that whatever of complaint may be 
heard about its fading propensities must be 
laid at the door of the manufacturer. 



144 COLORS 

Change till you get a good one, tlien stich 
to it. 

129. Tuscan red, as was intimated in 
the description of Indian red, is now used 
almost exclusively in the solid painting of 
surfaces instead of Indian red. It is not 
nearly as strong in coloring matter, how- 
ever, and is not used like that pigment in 
the making of tints. It is strange but true 
that it will not make near as rich tints as 
Indian reds wiU when mixed with white. 
One would naturally suppose the contrary 
to be the case on account of their greater 
richness of tone. The car trade uses great 
quantities of it in the painting of railroad 
cars, as it is the official color adopted by 
several corporations. Many implement 
manufacturers use it also. It can be used 
to good advantage in any medium and in its 
good qualities with safety in almost any 
situation. 

Eed Jjead— Minium; minium ruhrum, 

130. Eed lead is the bioxide of lead. 
In volume I of the red series an extended 



COLOES 145 

notice of its uses is given in so far as its 
application to iron and other metallic sur- 
faces is concerned. It was known to the 
older civilizations and used in the enamel- 
ing of pottery, etc., and it is still well known 
under its old Roman name of minium in 
most parts of Europe. It is produced hj 
the oxidation of massicot or litharge and 
also of white lead and off colored white 
lead usually finds its way to the red lead 
retorts. 

131. Red lead is a very heavy pigment 
of crystallic formation, hence very fine 
grinding is injurious to the brilliancy of its 
tone. The grinding it receives is more of 
a crushing of the dried cake into which it is 
made after being taken out of the drying 
pans. It possesses the property of saponi- 
fying a certain amount of the linseed oil 
necessary for its application, also that of 
hardening up with the oil so saponified into 
a metallic like hardness. This prevents its 
being ground in oil, as most all other colors 
are, as it would harden at the bottom of the 



146 COLORS 

cans. It is always bouglit in its dry pow- 
dered form and mixed with oil as needed. 
132. Its nses are principally in connec- 
tion with the painting of structural and 
other iron and steel surfaces. For the 
painting of floors it is invaluable on ac- 
count of its drying into metallic hardness. 
It is also very valuable as a ground for and 
in a mixture for the painting of the run- 
ning gears of wagons, trucks, etc. It is of 
no use in water colors, and of but little for 
other than the ones mentioned above. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON XXII 

126. What is said about Tuscan reds ? 

127. How are they manufactured? 

128. What are their characteristics ? 

129. What are its chief uses ? 
manufacture ? 

131. What are its characteristics? 

130. What is said of red lead and its 

132. What are its uses in painting? 



COLOKS 147 

LESSON XXIII 

THE BED GROUP OF PIGMENTS — CONTINUED 

Madder Lakes— Pitz/c madder lake; Rose 
madder lake; madder carmine; madder red; 
Ruben's madder; madder purple; madder 
lake; Krapp lack, Ger. ; Carmin de gar- 
ance, Fr. ; Laque de garance, Fr . 

133. All the above are now made from 
the same coloring substance, Alizarin and 
purpurin. The lakes are transparent or at 
least semi-transparent, the coloring matter 
being a dye of more or less permanency 
which is absorbed by a base, usually an 
alum base or some transparent earth white 
or a combination of these and of alum. 
Lakes are useful chiefly as glazing colors 
over a ground color which they enrich or 
in compounding tints with white or colored 
pigments. 

Madder lake originally was produced by 
the extracted coloring matter of madder 
root, which was thrown upon a base in 



148 COLOKS 

mncli the same way as related above. Its 
chemical reproduction from coal tar colors 
has driven the genuine from the field at 
present and there is no prospect of its ever 
coming into use again as it cannot compete 
in price with the artificial, and that is just 
as good. 

The various colors produced from a 
maroon to the clearest reds and carmine 
tones can all be put together in a bunch as 
they differ chiefly in the amount of color- 
ing matter contained and in a few instances 
to the variation of the colors in the coal 
tar colors themselves and to the kind of 
base they are thrown upon; some absorbing 
much more colors than others and again 
some giving out a difference in the tones. 

134. All the better class of the lakes 
made today are of this character. The 
cheaper ones made from rose aniline and 
such fugitive stuff as the Eose Pink and 
Rose Lake of that trade name are hardly 
worth carrying home, for the work done 
with them will have to be collected for in 



COLOKS 149 

a hurry in order that the beautiful tones 
they show when first put on may still be 
present when the work is inspected. 

Carmine hske— Crimson lake; Purple 
lake; Carmine lack, Ger.; Carmin, Fr.; 
Laque cramoisi, Fr. 

135. Carmine as it is best known in 
the United States is a beautiful red toned 
lake, is of animal derivation extracted 
from an insect known as cochineal which 
is mainly imported from Central Amer- 
ica. Its discovery was accidental; it was 
made by a Florentine monk who was pre- 
paring some medicine into which cochineal 
was used. It formed a red precipitate and 
this lead to its production as an article of 
commerce. It is thrown upon an alum base 
and it is said that the water used for the 
boiling of it has a great deal to do with the 
brightness of its coloring. 

Many experiments have been made in 
order to obtain this most beautiful of pig- 
ments of a more stable character, but so 
far without much success. It is a pity that 



150 COLORS 

it is so, for tliere is no other red possessing 
the same brilliancy and the carriage 
painter knows how to obtain effects from 
it in glazing over a vermillion ground that 
makes an already beautiful finish look fit 
for the gods. 

136. Owing to its fugitive character in 
sunlight, it has nearly become obsolete 
and displaced by the use of the madder 
lakes. These when first painted out are 
not nearly so bright as carmine, but let the 
student paint upon a piece of cardboard 
two small squares side and side, one from 
genuine carmine and the other from a mad- 
der lake of similar tone; an exposure of 
six weeks to sun rays will tell its own tale 
better than words. The madder lake will 
have retained its color and be very much 
better toned, richer and deeper than its 
more beautiful rival at the start. The re- 
liance which can be put into the perma- 
nency of the madder lakes have nearly 
driven carmine out of market. It 's a pity 
it is so, but usually painting is not done for 



COLOBS 151 

the day, but is expected to look well for a 
reasonable time. 

Indian Lake— Lac lake; Lack, lack Ger. ; 
Laque d*Inde, Fr. 

137. At a time before tbe introduction 

of the madder red lakes, there existed a 

; reason for its use by artists and decorators, 

' it was more stable than cochineal although 

greatly inferior to it in coloring. Why it 

' is still being used by artists is a conundrum 

which is hard to explain excepting that of 

ignorance of the existence of the better far 

better toned and more permanent pigments 

of the madder class. It should be discarded 

and replaced by the madder lakes. 

The above finishes the list of useful reds. 
After all, when the) group is cut down to 
its right number of different pigments and 
the many similar ones listed as syno- 
nyms of some well known color, the number 
is not so great as to cause a beginner any 
trouble in selecting what he wants and re- 
quires with but little hesitancy when he has 
familiarized himself with them. 



152 COLORS 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON XXHI 

133. What is said regarding tlie manu- 
facture of tlie madder lakes ? 

134. What is- the character of the 
cheaper red lakes such as Kose Pink and 
Eose Lake? 

135. What is said of carmine lake? 

136. Why is the use of carmine lake de- 
creasing today? 

137. What is said of Indian lake? 



' COLOES 153 

LESSON XXIV 

THE YELLOW GROUP OF PIGMENTS 

138. The yellow group of pigments is an 
important one. The part played by yel- 
lows and the tints made from them and by 
their agency in combination with other pig- 
ments is very great. Like many of the 
other groups it has been made to carry un- 
der various names, many separate ones so 
nearly similar in tone and composition that 
a Philadelphia lawyer would be puzzled to 
tell one from which; this only creates con- 
fusion. These are placed as synonyms on 
the list and cuts the number of pigments 
to its lowest limit. Again it will be found 
that even among those that are given a 
description of as separate pigments, that 
some are very superior and that many 
among those named can well be spared and 
be replaced by the better ones, so that the 
list can be still further reduced. 

Ochie— Yellow ochre; French ochre; 



154 COLOKS 

Roman ochre; Mineral yellow; Brown 
ochre; American ochre; Oxford ochre; 
Mars yellow; Mars orange; Artificial 
ochre; Gelhen ochre, Ger. ; Mars geTb, Ger. ; 
Ochre jaune, Fr. 

139. Many of the above names are ac- 
tual synonyms and a few are used to desig- 
nate quality, so that as they all appertain 
to the same general genus they are all 
grouped together as all that is said of one 
appertains to all the rest as well. 

140. There is no time in the world's his- 
tory when ochres have not been made use 
of ; so that but little can be said concerning 
this valuable pigment that is not well 
known to the world. It has been dug out 
of the hills and mined from the stratas con- 
taining them continuously for periods end- 
ing in the dim prehistoric times. As to the 
methods used in mining them, the reader is 
referred to paragraph 45 as to how this is 
done. Ochres are to be found in all sec- 
tions of the world and are more widely dis- 
tributed than any other natural pigment. 



COLOKS 155 

The United States forms no ex<3eption to 
tlie rule. Some sections have it in greater 
quantity than others ; again there is a wide 
difference in the quality of the ochre itselt 
This depending upon the conditions under 
which it was made in the first place. The 
strata of earth holding the coloring mat- 
ter, the quality of the coloring agent are 
^ all factors in determining values and qual- 
ities. 

141. Ochres can be divided into two gen- 
eral groups : 1st, are those where the base 
holding up the coloring matter, which is 
hydrated oxide of iron, is composed chiefly 
of silicate earth (not sand) ; 2nd, are those 
where the base consists chiefly of alumina, 
the coloring matter being due to the same 
agency as in No. 1. 

142. There is a great deal of difference 
in the quality of ochres; this difference is 
due not only to the tone of its color, but to 
its base also, as this fits it for certain pur- 
poses to which the other is not fitted for 
and vice-versa. There is much diversity of 



156 COLOES 

opinion regarding their use simply because 
the one was used where the other should 
have been. Most causes of complaints are 
traceable to this source. The ochres con- 
taining a preponderance of silicate earth 
in its base are safe to use for outdoor paint- 
ing, even in its self color without being 
compounded with other pigments. The 
best French and English ochres are of this 
character. There has been no similar 
ochres found in the United States so far, 
the nearest approach being those dug in 
Eastern Virginia in the Appomatox river 
section. Nearly all other American ochres 
so called containing much silica are really 
more of a Sienna character and are trans- 
parent. 

The American supply of opaque ochre 
consists chiefly of such as contain a pre- 
ponderance of alumina or clay in the base. 
This makes it unsafe to use in its self color 
alone for outside use and ninety per cent of 
all the trouble complained of is due to its 
use as a primer. On the other hand, the 



COLOKS 157 

aluminous based oclires are best for water 
color work, working more smootbly than 
the other variety. 

143. Ochres are used by house painters, 
principally for the preparing of the myri- 
ads of buffs and cream tints used so pro- 
fusely for the painting of exteriors and 
wall work in interiors of houses. They en- 
ter also as an important addition in the 
preparation of a number of other tints, as 
in terra-cottas, drabs, etc. They have been 
used in enormous quantities in priming 
work on wooden buildings. The silicate 
ochres are comparatively safe for this pur- 
pose, but to make doubtly sure should be 
compounded with white lead for that pur- 
pose and should be finely ground 

The wall paper printing trade uses large 
quantities of it in its preparing of water 
color tints. The coloring matter varies a 
good deal in various samples in both qual- 
ity and quantity, running from 15 per cent, 
to 85 per cent., but quantity is of no value 
without the quality is also present. Some 



158 COLOES 

of these highly ferruginous samples being 
fit only to be burned into mortar color reds. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON XXIV 

138. What is said in general regarding 
the yellow group of pigments I 

139. What is said of ochres and their 
synonyms f 

140. What is said of ochres in general ? 

141. How should ochres be classified! 

142. What are the characteristics of the 
silicate and aluminous based ochres ? 

143. What are the chief uses made of 
ochres in painting? 



COLOES 159 

LESSON XXV 

Chrome Yellow— Chrome; Chromate of 
lead; Crom gelb, Ger. ; Chrome jaune, Fr. 

144. Chrome yellow with all its defects 
is of more importance to the painter than 
all the rest of the yellows put together if 
the ochres be excluded. It is a compara- 
tively recent pigment, there being no trace 
of them seen in the paintings of older civil- 
izations. It comes in so many varied hues 
and tones that some of them are pretty 
sure to duplicate some ancient pigment 
with twice as many faults as they have, 
so that they have been able to put out of 
use many other pigments which in the past 
were used extensively in painting and deco- 
rating. 

146. Chrome yellow is basic chromate 
of lead. This is true of only one of its many 
shades, i e., medium chrome yellow. This is 
the product of a double decomposition of a 
bi-chromate of potash solution with a lead 



160 COLORS 

salt solution, tlie precipitate resulting be- 
ing chromate of lead. 

The many variations in the shades of 
chrome yellow are due to the addition of 
either acid or alkaline substances before the 
precipitation takes place, with the result 
that if sulphuric acid is added the precipi- 
tate will be lighter toned, and according 
to the quantity added will be either a very 
light canary yellow, running deeper in tone 
to the lemons and gradually approaching 
to the medium when lesser quantities of 
sulphuric acid are employed. This com- 
bines with the lead salt forming sulphate 
of lead, the presence of which in light tones 
of chrome yellow is not an adulteration 
when not in excess. 

On the other hand the reddish tones of 
the orange chrome-yellows are due to the 
addition of alkaline or caustic substances, 
usually lime, to the solution before precipi- 
tation. The more alkali added the deeper 
will be the precipitate ranging through the 



COLOES 161 

gamut of orange tones from tlie very 
lightest to the deepest. 

Chrome yellow is fairly permanent when 
well made. It is affected by sunlight some- 
what, and sulphuretted hydrogen gas effect 
its lead component part by turning it into 
a black sulphide of lead. The lightest 
shades are least affected, as sulphate of 
lead is not affected by those gases. 

The medium and orange shades being 
free from sulphate of lead if they are pure 
are the ones mostly affected. 

147. It is hard to place a limit upon the 
uses of chrome yellow in painting for fear 
of not half stating them. With proper care, 
it being fairly it not quite permanent it, 
can be used any where and for all purposes 
desired. Its many tones can still further 
be increased by the addition of whites to 
lighten them up into an infinity of shades. 
As a means of producing a great number 
of tints it is invaluable and for the making 
of greens could not be replaced by any other 
yellow. 



162 COLORS 

It is as useful in water color decoration 
or plain work as it is in oil and japan. 
The carriage trade, car and implement 
manufacturers using large quantities of 
it. 

Baryta Lemon Yellow— Baryta yellow; 
Barium chr ornate; Yellow ultramarine; 
Permanent yellow, 

148. This being a different pigment 
from the lemon chrome yellow must be re- 
viewed separately. There is no lead in its 
composition, Baryta being the base. It does 
not turn black when in contact with sul- 
phuretted hydrogen. It is subject to the 
same trouble that chrome yellows are, how- 
ever, in that the chromic acid has a ten- 
dency to turn greenish in tone with time. 
Otherwise its use is indicated for situations 
where the injurious gases so inimical to 
lead chromates are likely to develop. 

Naple Yellow— Neapel gelb, Ger. ; Jaune 
de Naples J Fr. ; Jaune d'Antimoine, Fr. 

149. Its origin is rather obscure. It is 
a compound of oxide of lead antimony and 



COLORS 163 

zinc, calcined in reverberatory furnaces, 
where they are fused and the mass result- 
ing finely powdered. While it is a com- 
paratively new pigment, being first intro- 
duced in the sixteenth century, it was 
known to the ancients, who used it in the 
enamelling of brick 700 years B. C. It is 
still used by some artists and decorators, 
but not nearly to the same extent that it 
was before the introduction of chrome yel- 
low, which has nearly displaced it. 

Indian Yellow— Pi^in; Puree, Peori; In- 
disch gelb, Ger. ; Jawne Indien, Fr. 

150. Is a pigment of vegetable extrac- 
tion obtained through animal agency how- 
ever. It is derived from the urine of cows 
fed with mango leaves. It usually has an 
offensive smell. It undergoes several tedi- 
ous processes in the preparing it for use. 
It is useful in oil or water color but more 
so to artists than to painters and decorators 
even, who dispense with it without great 
detriment. 

Dutchl Vmii— Yellow lake; Brown pink; 



164 COLOKS 

Citrine lake; Yellow madder; Italian pinJc; 
Quercitron lake; Dunkelgelh lack, Ger. ; 
Laque hrun jaune, Fr. 

151. A great number of names for an 
article of as little real value as Dutch Pink 
is. But that nearly all color lists still carry 
it and that in certain sections it is still used 
in water color work of walls, its examina- 
tion would not have been given as most of 
its tints can be produced more cheaply by 
the use of other pigments. It is a lake 
thrown down upon a base to hold up the 
coloring matter, which is chiefly extracted 
from red, white and black oak bark also 
from several other trees and bushes, such 
as the buckthorn and the shrubs of the 
Bhames family. 

Aureolin— Cobalt yellow; Cobalt gelh, 
Ger. ; Jaune de Cobalt^ Fr. 

152. Much could be said concerning this 
pigment. Its cost will prevent its use even 
to decorators in any but very high grade 
work. 'Artists esteem it. It is an anti-dry- 
ing pigment in oil. The future may bring 



COLORS 165 

about some discovery whereby it may be 
made to loose its water of hydration and 
render it anhydrous. In that condition 
only would it be safe to use, and then its 
cost would have to be reduced materially. 

Cadmium Yellow— One^^ yelloiv; Au- 
rora yellow; Orange cadmium; Sulphide of 
cadmium; Cadmium gelh, Ger. ; Jaune de 
cadmium, Fr. ; Jaune brilliant, Fr. 

153. The painter will hardly ever be a 
liberal user of cadmium, as its cost is high. 
It is a fairly permanent pigment, running 
through the gamut of yellows from the 
lightest of orange to the deepest of its red 
shades. To decorators and artists it will 
appeal, in that it prevents the injurious ef- 
fect of sulphuretted hydrogen gas upon 
tints made from it and white lead. On the 
other hand again, it being a sulphide it 
becomes incompatible to all colors which 
are not sympathetic with it. 

Other yellows consist chiefly in ex- 
tremely poisonous compound, as king's yel- 
low, or pigment, etc., which are of no use 



166 coix)ES 

to the trade, either in plain or artistic work, 
and which on account of their dangerous 
character should be let severely alone. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON XXV 

144. "What is said of chrome yellow in 
general I 

145. How are chrome yellows manufac- 
tured ? 

146. What are the chief characteristics 
of chrome yellows f 

147. What are the chrome yellows of 
best use for in painting! 

148. What is the difference between 
Baryta lemon yellow and the chrome yel- 
lows? 

149. What is said of Naple yellow? 

150. What is Indian yellow ? 

151. What is said of Dutch pink? 

152. What is aureolin? 

153. What is said of cadmium yellow? 



COLOBS 167 

LESSON XXVI 

THE WHITE GROUP OF PIGMENTS 

154. The white group of pigments has 
two general divisions : 1st, those pigments 
which are derived from a metallic origin; 
2nd, those which are natural products of 
mineral origin, the earth whites. 

Most all of the latter and white lead of 
the other division have been known and 
used a very long time, so that aside of im- 
provements made in production none aside 
of zinc white and sublimed lead in the met- 
allic whites and none whatever in the earth 
whites are of recent origin, if blanc ^xe or 
baryta white is excepted and is classed 
among the earth whites. 

"White Jjesid— Flake ivMte; Cremnitz 
white; Cerusa or ceruse; Cremser iveiss, 
Ger. ; Blanc de plomh, Fr. 

155. In the preceding paragraph it was 
stated that white lead was known to the 
ancients, and it was for some of their enam- 



168 COLOKS 

ellings on brick and pottery was done witli 
it and Pliny describes the process of mak- 
ing it. It never took sucb a grip of the 
painting business that it bas now, simply 
because there was but little of it done aside 
of the decoration and painting of churches 
and palaces. The application of the cor- 
rosive agents named by Pliny in the way 
and manner that the Dutch Process uses 
either in the stack or cylinder method of 
corrosion are comparatively recent. The 
renaissance period which advanced the 
wellfare and standing of the middle classes 
and created a demand for the adornment 
of their dwellings created an activity in the 
inventive genius of the world and spurred 
every one with a mechanical turn to invent 
methods of production on a scale large 
enough to meet the greatly increased de- 
mand. 

156. The white lead of commerce is a 
basic carbonate of lead or, to be miore cor- 
rect, it is hydrate-carbonate of lead. Pure 
carbonate of lead would chalk too readily, 



COLOKS 169 

but it gives to white lead its body or 
opaqueness ; the hydrate of lead it contains 
corrects this, but when in excess of about 
1/3 it affects its covering. The proper 
proportion of hydrate of lead is from 25 
per cent, to 30 per cent, of the total and of 
the carbonate from 70 to 75 per cent. It is 
made by two systems, the stack and the cyl- 
inder, both too lengthy for a complete rela- 
tion in this manual. By these processes 
dilute acetic acid of about the strength of 
vinegar is supplied to the lead in order to 
attack it or corrode it. In the stack process 
thin sheets or disks of metallic lead are 
placed in pots, when these are filled vinegar 
is put into the bottom of the pot layers 
of pots are placed upon each other sepa- 
rated by planks which hold a bed of manure 
and tan bark, upon which another layer of 
pots is placed and the same process re- 
peated until it is filled to the desired height. 
The heat generated by the manure sets the 
acetic vapors to rise and gives out the car- 
bonic acid required to turn the lead cor- 



170 COLOES 

roded to a carbonate. It requires about 
ninety days for the process to be complete. 

157. Cylinder system of corroding lead 
is by precisely the same agencies of acetic 
acid vapors, carbonic acid and moisture to 
produce the proper amount of hydration, 
only it is an entirely different application 
of them. Thel lead is very finely divided 
and the fine lead sand is put into cylinders 
which are connected with generators to 
furnish it the acid vapors needed. These 
cylinders revolving slowly present new 
faces to the attack of the corroding agents, 
and the process is greatly hastened 
thereby. Both produce the same kind of 
lead with such percentage of hydrate and 
carbonate as entitle them to be called 
strictly pure white lead as understood un- 
der that term by the paint trade. 

158. The same processes for cleaning 
the manufactured white lead is used in 
both systems. 1st, a thorough washing and 
filtering to clean it from any dirt and any 
possible free acetate of lead, which is 



COLOKS 171 

soluble and wMcli is washed away. Then 
the settling of the lead in vats, the pulp 
of which is dried and afterwards either 
mixed with oil and ground in the form best 
known to the painters or dry ground and 
barreled to sell to the paint grinders or for 
use in a dry state. 

159. White lead is a heavy pigment of 
good opacity, being by far the most opaque 
of the white pigments. It has a much bet- 
ter affinity for linseed oil than it has for 
water, so much so that the pulp lead as it 
is called when it has settled in the vats 
after being washed can be placed in a 
chaser, oil added to it and in a few minutes 
of trituration it will have parted with its 
water and absorbed the linseed oil in its 
stead. It saponifies a portion of the oil 
used in its application so that it spreads 
easily under the brush. It is affected by 
sulphuretted hydrogen gas. Its particles 
have no affinity for each other, so when the 
linseed oil which holds it on gives out by 
decay these lead particles which are loos- 



172 COLOKS 

ened from each other fall or can be brushed 
away. 

160. The painters would be in a sorry 
plight if all at once white lead should be 
wiped out of existence. All classes of paint- 
ers use it. The carriage painter to get up 
his foundation coats. The house painter 
for either solid white painting or for the 
base upon which he mixes all the tints that 
can be thought of nearly. It is not used 
greatly in water colors for mural work, as 
cheaper whites can be used there that are 
preferable. 

Flake White— Cremnitz white, 

161. This is simply a selected white lead 
of more than ordinary whiteness and opac- 
ity. In short an extra good quality of it 
and of good use to the decorative trade 
mainly; also to the carriage trade for 
strip eing. Sign painters too have fre- 
quent use for a lead of more than ordi- 
nary covering and to all such it is invalu- 
able. It is in no wise different from any 
other white lead and all that is said in the 
preceding paragraphs apply to it fully. 



COLOKS 173 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON XXVI 

154. How should white pigments be di- 
vided? 

155. What is said of white lead in gen- 
eral? 

156. What is the method used in cor- 
roding white lead by the Dutch stack proc- 
ess? 

157. What is the method of corroding 
white lead by the cylinder Dutch process ? 

158. How is lead prepared for market 
after corrosion? 

159. What are the peculiarities of white 
lead? 

160. What are its uses in painting? 

161. What is flake white? 



174 COLORS 

LESSON xxvn 

WHITE PIGMENTS CONTINUED 

Sublimed Lead— ^asic sulphate of lead. 

162. Is a comparatively new pigment. 
It is obtained from lead ore wbicb is sub- 
limed and the metallic vapors are con- 
densed in chambers in a manner similar to 
that related of the manufacturing of zinc 
white. It is a basic sulphate of lead con- 
taining some 5 per cent, of zinc. It has a 
much better body than sulphate of lead has 
and its particles are extremely fine, so 
much so as to almost float. This makes it 
fine for dipping preparations. So far it 
has been found most useful to the manufac- 
turer of mixed paints and in compounding 
with strictly pure white lead and other 
pigments to correct some of their faults. 
It is not so opaque as the white lead of 
commerce and it is hoped that the two will 
not be mixed together and sold as white 
lead, because they are different, each good 



COLORS 175 

in its place, but an imposition when passed 
off for what they are not. 
Dahl Process— TF/^i^e lead, 

163. This lead, like Dutch process white 
lead, is a basic carbonate of lead but dif- 
fering from it in that instead of its atoms 
having a crystalline formation it is amor- 
phous in its particles, therefore it has less 
opacity. It is a greater absorber of lin- 
seed oil. It is too soon to pass an opinion 
upon it, as to its better wearing quality, 
etc.; its defective covering will probably 
place it along side of sublimed lead which 
has less opacity but infinitely better wear- 
ing qualities than it has. 

164. White oxide of lead as a pigment 
bobs up under various names at intervals 
and goes down after a few months as soon 
as its character is established. It has the 
fault of the other oxides of lead of harden- 
ing in the packages with the linseed oil it 
is ground with. As a pigment it would be 
all right but for that, it kills it. 

165. There have been at times many 



176 COLORS 

various processes of making white lead in- 
troduced, tried and found wanting. It is 
well to let tlie other fellow do the experi- 
menting and to stick to the time tried Dutch 
process strictly pure white lead. 

Zinc White— Chinese white; Oxide of 
zinc; Zinc weiss, Ger. ; Blanc de zinc, Fr. 

166. Zinc white is not an old pigment. 
It has been known for some time ; but owing 
to its anti drying propensity, it has not been 
used as a pigment, only since the nineteenth 
century was fairly well advanced. It is 
chiefly through the use of it with a good 
drying oil by L eclair e in France in the 
forties that its use may be said to have be- 
come universal. 

167. The processes of making zinc white 
is simple, yet to go through all the details 
that would be of interest to a manufac- 
turer would be too great for this manual 
and only the leading features of it can be 
given. Zinc white is made from the zinc 
metal itself and also from the zinc ore. 
When made from the metal it is called 



COLORS 177 

French process zinc ; when made from the 
ore it is called American process zinc. By; 
either method, the spelter or the ore is 
placed in retorts and vaporized ; the vapors 
arise in an upper chamber where there is 
a strong current of fresh air supplied. It 
having a great affinity for oxygen, it com- 
bines with it and at once assumes the form 
of a flocculent flake, which arises into the 
mouth of sacks hung with head open to re- 
ceive them. The best and whitest is that 
which forms farthest away from the open- 
ings where the vapor enters the chamber. 
168. The impurities which are present 
in the ore are carried up in the chamber 
along with the zinc vapor, and for this rea- 
son the so called American zinc is not as 
good as that made from the metal by the so 
called French process. Zinc white is now 
made by both processes in America, and 
American made white zinc by French proc- 
ess is as good as any imported. The pro- 
duct is oxide of zinc and has to be com- 
pressed into a compact form on account 



178 COLORS 

of its feathery atomic form, after which it 
is ground dry and in oil, etc., for the vari- 
ous needs of the trade. 

169. Zinc [white is a beautiful white 
which stands well under the most adverse 
conditions and is not affected by sulphur- 
ous gases. It is an opaque pigment but not 
nearly so as white lead. It is a great ab- 
sorber of linseed oil, so much so that the 
same weight of it as of lead cannot be 
spread with the same amount of oil. This 
will permit the spreading of a given num- 
ber of pounds much farther than the same 
weight of lead. If this extra quantity of 
space which is covered with a given weight 
of zinc white be taken into consideration, 
it will be found that its real covering after 
all is not much inferior to that of white 
lead. Its atoms having a great affinity for 
each other instead of chalking off after the 
decay of the linseed oil, as white lead does, 
seem to stick together until such time as 
the decay of the oil has proceeded to the 



COLORS 179 

point tliat it cannot hold them on longer, 
.when they scale off. 

170. Its best use for outside work is as 
a corrective of white lead. This correction 
is mutual, both being benefited by it. For 
interior work, its freedom from changes 
due to deleterious gases and its good 
adaptation for the making of good enamel 
work indicate its use for all sorts of in- 
terior work. It is excellent in water color 
work as well, and for the making of clean 
toned tints it excels all other whites. When 
using it with linseed oil, some good light 
siccative should be used with it. 



QUESTIONS ON LESSON XXVII 

162. What is sublimed lead? 

163. What is said of Dahl 's white lead 1 

164. What is said of white lead oxide 1 

165. Are there other whites obtained 
from lead? 

166 What is said of zinc white? 
167. How is zinc white made?. 



180 COLORS 

168. Wliy is French process made zinc 
superior to the American? 

169. What are the chief characteristics 
of zinc white? 

170. What are its chief uses in paint- 
ing? 



COLORS 181 

LESSON XXVIII 

THE WHITE PIGMENTS CONTINUED 

The earth whites, 

171. The earth whites have been known 
and used from time immemorial. Most of 
them ase natural products as the name in- 
dicates. According as to which of the chief 
constituents in the base predominates, they 
are known as : Aluminous, when clay is its 
chief substance ; as, Cretaceous, when chalk 
is in the lead and as Silicious, when silica 
is its main constituent. Each class is better 
adapted to certain purposes than others. In 
oil they have but little opacity. They are 
used mainly as correctives of other pig- 
ments in oil. Their usefulness as bases for 
water color work is great, being cheap and 
well adapted to that work. 

172. The Aluminous white : China clay; 
Kaolin are the only ones worth consider- 
ing. In oil they have more body and opac- 
ity than the others, but not enough to be 



182 COLOKS 

used alone, as tlie oil colors tliem to a dirty 
yellow tone. They are used as correctives 
sometimes. In water color work they are 
considered inferior to the cretaceous 
whites. 

173a Under the heading of cretaceous 
whites, to which both the carbonate of lime 
and sulphate of lime belong, are two of 
the most useful of water color pigments. 

Whiting: Carbonate of lime is the one 
pigment in universal use, and is excellent 
for the purpose of a base for water color 
work. In oil it is indifferent, excepting as 
a corrective in various pigments. It should 
be well cleaned and washed. The process 
of levigating described in paragraphs 49 
to 51 will do that well, and the resulting 
cake when dry is broken up into small 
chunks and sold as lump whiting or pow- 
dered and sifted and sold as Gilder 's whit- 
ing. 

173b. In Vol II is given a full descrip- 
tion of how to prepare tints from it in 
water colors, but a shorter one is given here 



COLOES 183 

in order to help out those who have not pro- 
cured it : The whiting should be mixed in 
cold .water until all lumps are dissolved 
' and the mass is of a smooth consistency. 
The colors from which the tints are to be 
made should be also thinned until all lumps 
! are dissolved, but they should be thinned 
; much thinner with water. This will enable 
,; one to pour them into the whiting base, 
\ and it will be easier to stir them up toge- 
ther to a homogeneous mass. As tints made 
in water colors look deeper while wet than 
when they have dried out they should be 
tried by drying on a piece of paper and 
then more color can be added if needed. 
174. Gypsum or the sulphate of lime is 
seldom used by painters in preparing 
water color tints, although the large ala- 
bastine and other so called anti-calcimine 
products manufacturers used it in large 
quantities, as they are better prepared to 
handle it as it should be. 

In the compounding of colors it is of 
good value as a base in making Venetian 



184 COLOKS 

reds, as was seen, and it is useful in the 
preparing of other pigments also. It has 
no body of its own to speak of in oil, and in 
water colors does not work as smoothly as 
whiting; that is one of the reasons why 
painters do not use it and the dijfficulties 
also of properly handling it spoken of. 

175. The silicious ivhites are excellent 
adjuncts for many purposes. Under the 
name of silver white they are used as a 
filler by hardwood finishers and as correct- 
ers of faults in other pigments by many 
grinders, and to a certain extent by paint- 
ers. Some use them in all their mixtures 
for flatting in oil on wall work. They 
should be used more than they are. There 
is no body in oil, and as a water color paint 
they are inferior to whiting, as they can- 
not be spread as smoothly nor will they 
cover as evenly. 

Baryta White— Barytes; 'Sulphate of 
Barium; Heavy spar; Permanent white; 
Permanent weiss, Ger. ; Blanc fixe, Fr. 

176. This is best known as Barytes in 



COLORS 185 

the Unitedl States and as heavy spar is a 
natural product in many parts of Amer- 
ica. It is very transparent in oil and in its 
ordinary condition is chiefly useful as a 
make weight for colors and as an adulter- 
ant. That which is better known to deco- 
rators as ^^ Permanent WMte^' or ^^ Blanc 
Fixe'* is artificially prepared. This while 
it cannot be called opaque ini oil is much 
more so than barytes and is an excellent 
pigment in water colors. 

As to ordinary barytes, there is a legiti- 
mate use for it, as an extender of very 
strong colors used chiefly in their self col- 
ors, as the chrome green, etc. Otherwise 
it is to be classed as an adulterant. 



QUESTIONS ON LESSON XXVIII 

171. What is said generally of the earth 
whites ? 

172. What are the characteristics and 
uses of the earth whites? 

173a. What are the characteristics and 



186 COLORS 

uses of tlie cretaceous whites ; especially of 
whiting? 

173b. How are tints made from wMting 
as a base and colored pigments for water 
colors ? 

174. "What are the characteristics and 
uses of gypsum? 

175. What is said of the silicious 
whites ? 

176. What is barita white and its uses 
in painting? 



COLORS 187 

LESSON XXIX 

VEHICLES OR THINNERS FOR PIGMENTS 

177. Vehicles are of course required to 
iiold the pigments in a liquid form in order 
to apply them with a brush, and which will 
so dry so that they will hold the pigment in 
place over the surface over which they are 
applied. 

Some vehicles contain within themselves 
the proper principles required to harden 
them into a hard waterproof rubber like 
gum. These are called the *^ fixed oils" be- 
cause they do not evaporate nor sink in and 
disappear. There are many vegetable oils 
that are of this character, but of these only 
two or three are ever used for the applica- 
tion and mixing of paints, to wit : Linseed 
oil, poppyseed oil and nut oil. [Another 
class of thinners are used which of them- 
selves have no binding properties, but are 
used as correctives of the fixed oils for 
certain specific purposes. They are called 



188 COLORS 

volatile oils, to wit: Spirits of turpentine 
and tlie lighter volatile oils of petroleum, 
benzine and naphtha. Again for the water 
color work water is used which would 
evaporate and disappear, hut for the addi- 
tion of other material which, when mixed 
together, furnish the binding to the pig- 
ment. 

178. The ''fixed oils/' While three are 
enumerated in the former paragraph, one 
only is used very extensively : Linseed oil. 
It is made by pressure from flaxseed 
ground pressed out and allowed to settle 
in tanks when it is fit for use. The raw 
linseed oil loses its elasticity by boiling 
and is the only form fit for outside paint- 
ing. Boiled linseed oil dries like varnishes 
without much penetration. 

179. Poppyseed and nut oil are used by 
artists mainly and are usually employed by 
them because of their lighter color, which 
in time, however, they too lose, so that 
they are little better if any than linseed 
oil and much more costly to procure. 



COLORS 189 

180. Binding materials soluble in water 
to give water color work stability, are ob- 
tained from vegetable and animal sources. 
Only one is of any real value that is de- 
rived from vegetable matter, that is ''Gum 
Arabic/' This being costly and unhandy 
to prepare is but little used except by art- 
ists. 

Glues are obtained from the offals of 
animals and fishes. The best glues are 
made from skins, that made from bones 
not being so strong. The thin glues which 
are sold under the name of calcimine glues 
are the best to use, that is the better qual- 
ities of them as they soak up readily in 
cold water and melt easily at a low heat. 
A good glue will bind from 1% to 2 lbs. of 
color to 1 oz. of glue, the former strongly 
so they can be worked over with other coats, 
the other for solid painting which is not 
to be painted or ornamented cover. 

181. Varnishes and japans are also used 
in mixing and as vehicles of paints espe- 
cially by the car and carriage trades and 



190 COLOKS 

for all otlier purposes where linseed oil can- 
not be used safely. Eadiators, heat reg- 
isters, and all such work requires the use 
of binders which will stand a great amount 
of heat without softening. 

QUESTIONS ON LESSON XXIX 

177. What is said of vehicles or thin- 
ners for paint in general f 

178. What is said of the fixed oils and 
especially of linseed oil ? 

179. What is said of poppyseed oil and 
of nut oil? 

180. What are the principal binding 
agents used in water color works 1 

181. What other binding material is 
used in carriage and other special work? 



COLOES 191 

LESSON XXX 

MODEEN FACTORY SYSTEM OF GRINDING 

182. It is useless for consumers of paint 
to try to grind their own colors, and if un- 
dertaken by them it will be a rather dear 
experiment to them. 

The proper grinding of colors is a sci- 
ence and the preservation of delicate tones 
is easily lost by improper grinding. It is 
possible to spoil the tone of a black pig- 
ment, to say nothing of the others, by the 
wrong kind of treatment in grinding. Some 
of the silicate based pigments when burnt 
like Burnt Sienna are very difficult to han- 
dle. Sufficient force cannot be used at once 
or they would be ruined, and such should 
be ground gradually in water cooled jacket 
mills. It frequently requires ten to fifteen 
grindings in soap stone mills to reduce 
them to the extreme fineness wanted with- 
out injury. 

!S few cuts of well arranged grinding 



192 coiiOES 

rooms are shown in tlie "body of tlie boot. 
They were kindly loaned for the purpose 
of showing how modern np-to-date grinding 
is done in factories. They represent a por- 
tion of the grinding rooms of the Acme 
White Lead and Color "Works of Detroit, 
Mich. 

' FINIS. 




INDEX 

Accident as a factor in color discovery 37 

American vermillion — ^wliat it is and its uses 130 

Animal charcoal — see Ivory Black 55 

Artistic use of color in ancient civilizations 23 

Asphaltum — wbat it is and its uses 87 

Aureolin — whsit it is and its uses 164 

Baryta lemon yellow — what it is and its uses 162 

Baryta white — ^what it is and its uses 184 

Benzine — its uses in painting 185 

Bistre — ^what it is 86 

Black group of pigments — general remarks on 45 

Black Brunswick — see Charcoal black 59 

Black Charcoal — ^what it is and its uses 59 

Black gas or carbon — manufacture of 51 

Black gas or carbon — characteristics of 51 

Black gas or carbon — uses of 52 

Black gas or carbon — defects of 52 

Black graphite — what it is and its uses 60 

Black ivory or coach or drop — general remarks on. 57 
Black ivory or coach or drop — characteristics of . . . . 57 

Black ivory or coach or drop — ^uses of 57 

Black lamp — general remarks on 46 

Black lamp — Calcination of 47 

Black lamp — characteristics of 47 

Black lamp — defects of 46 

Black lamp — ^manufacture of 47 

Black lamp — uses of 48 

Blanc fixe — see Baryta white 184 

Blue group of pigments — general remarks on 90 

Blue ceruleum — ^what it is and its uses 102 

iii 



iv INDEX 

Blue Chinese — ^its varation from Prussian blue 101 

Blue Chinese — its use in painting 101 

Blue Cobalt — its artificial preparation 101 

Blue Cobalt — its uses 101 

Blue Prussian — general remarks on 91 

Blue Prussian — ^its discovery 91 

Blue Prussian — its manufacture 92 

Blue Prussian — its characteristics 91 

Blue Prussian — its defects 91 

Blue Prussian — its uses 92 

Blue ultramarine — ^general remarks on 96 

Blue ultramarine — its characteristics 96 

Blue ultramarine — its defects 98 

Blue ultramarine — its manufacture 97 

Blue ultramarine — its uses 97 

Brown group of pigments — general remarks on ... . 63 
Brown Raw and Burnt Siennas — ^general remarks 

on 79 

Brown Raw and Burnt Siennas — where obtained.. 79 
Brown Raw and Burnt Siennas — characteristics of .80 
Brown Raw and Burnt Siennas — test for quality. 80 

Brown Raw and Burnt Siennas — ^uses of 80 

Brown Raw and Burnt Umbers — general remarks 

on 73 

Brown Raw and Burnt Umbers — characteristics of 74 
Brown Raw and Burnt Umbers — test for quality. . 74 

Brown Raw and Burnt Umbers — uses of 74 

Brown Raw and Burnt Umbers — ^where obtained. . 73 

Brown Vandyke — ^general remarks on 85 

Brown Vandyke — characteristics of 85 

Brown Vandyke — defects of 86 

Brown Vandyke — uses of 86 

Brown Vandyke — what it is 86 

Cadmium yellow — ^what it is and its uses 165 

Carmine lake — what it is and its uses 149 



INDEX V 

Cause of yellow pigments changed to red 137 

Ceruleum blue — what it is and its uses. 102 

Charcoal black — ^what it is and its uses 59 

Chemistry — its effect upon color discovery 25 

Chemically made colors — general remarks on 35 

Chemically made colors — coal tar colors 36 

Chemically made colors — their permanency as com- 
pared with others 36 

Chrome green — general remarks on 106 

Chrome green — its characteristics 107 

Chrome green — its defects 107 

Chrome green — Its manufacture 107 

Chrome green — its uses 107 

Chrome yellow — general remarks on 159 

Chrome yellow— its characteristics 159 

Chrome yellow — its defects 160 

Chrome yellow — lemon and the light shades of . . . .160 

Chrome yellow — manufacture of 160 

Chrome yellow — orange and dark shades of 160 

Chrome yellow — its uses 160 

Coach black — see ivory black 57 

Cobalt blue — its preparation and uses 101 

Cobalt green — its preparation and uses 114 

Color in primitive times 124 

Dahl's process white lead 175 

Effect of the Renaissance period upon art and paint- 
ing 28 

Factory system of color making — of recent occur- 
rence 191 

Factory system of grinding of colors — the only 

proper way 192 

Fixed oils — ^what they are and their uses 190 

Flake white — see white lead 168 

Gas or carbon black — general remarks on 51 

Gas or carbon black — its charactertlstics 51 



vi INDEX 

Gas or carbon black — its defects ' 52 

Gas or carbon black — its manufacture 52 

Gas or carbon black — its uses 52 

General remarks on black group of colors 45 

General remarks on blue group of pigments 91 

General remarks on brown group of pigments 63 

General remarks on chemically made colors 35 

General remarks on chrome greens 106 

General remarks on chrome yellows 159 

General remarks on earth colors 30 

General remarks on green group of pigments 106 

General remarks on Indian reds 138 

General remarks on madder lakes 147 

General remarks on ochers 154 

General remarks on red group of pignments . . 154 

General remarks on red lead 145 

General remarks on Vermillion (quicksilver) ....121 

General remarks on Vermillion reds 127 

General remarks on white group of pigments ..... 166 

General remarks on white lead 167 

General remarks on yellow group of pigments. .. .153 

General remarks on zinc white 176 

Glues — their uses in water color painting 186 

Graphite black — its characteristics 60 

Graphite black — its uses 61 

Green group of pigments — general remarks on 106 

Green chrome — its characteristics 107 

Green chrome — its defects 107 

Green chrome — its manufacture 107 

Green chrome — its uses 107 

Green cobalt — its preparation and uses 114 

Green malachite — its preparation and uses 117 

Green oxide of chromium — its character and uses . . 115 

Green, Paris — its dangerous character 117 

Green, Paris — its uses H'^ 



INDEX vii 

Green terre verte— what it is and its uses us 

Green verdigris— what it is and its uses ! "117 

Green viridian— what it is and its uses ! .'114 

Grinding of colors in factories .* .191 

Gum arable— its uses in water color painting. . * 188 

. Gypsum— see earth whites ! . ! . .30 

History of color making ...."* 20 

How earth colors are mined " * Y5 

How earth colors are levigated and prepared for 

„"^^ 76 

How to distmguish, quality in siennas 80 

How to distinguish quality in umbers 74 

IjDdian Lake— what it is and its nses .' .* .151 

Indian Red— general remarks on 138 

Indian Red— its charactertistics ,.139 

Indian Red— its uses .'!..'....' .139 

Indian yellow— what it is and its uses I63 

Ivory black— general remarks on 57 

Ivory black— its characteristics 58 

Ivory black— its defects ^s 

Ivory black— its uses 58 

Lamp black— general remarks on 46 

Lamp black— Calcination of ' * 47 

Lamp black — characteristics of 47 

Lamp black— defects V. V. ... 48 

Lamp black — ^manufacture of 46 

Lamp black— qualities of 4^ 

Lamp black— uses of 48 

Levigating the earth colors— what it means 76 

Levigating the earth colors— how done 76 

Linseed oil— general remarks on 199 

Linseed oil, boiled— character and uses 189 

Linseed oil, raw— character and uses 189 

Madder red artificial .'147 

Madder Lakes— general remarks on 147 



viii INDEX 

Madder Lakes — how prepared 148 

Madder Lakes — characteristics of 148 

Madder Lakes — ^uses of 149 

Malachite — what it is and its uses 117 

Mining of earth colors 75 

Natural earth colors — general remarks on 75 

Natural white earths — see earth whites 181 

Naples yellow — what it is and its uses 162 

Naptha — its uses in painting 189 

Nut oil — its uses In painting 189 

Ocher yellow — general remarks on 153 

Ocher yellow — argillaceous, general remarks on. . . .154 
Ocher yellow — ^argillaceous, characteristics of and 

uses 157 

Ocher yellow — argillaceous, defects of 157 

Ocher yellow — ^how produced • .154 

Ocher yellow — silicious, general remarks on 154 

Ocher yellow — silicious, characteristics and uses. ..154 

Ocher yellow — silicious, defects of 155 

Ocher red — ^what it is and its uses 153 

Paris green — its dangerous character 117 

Paris green — its uses 117 

Plumbago — see graphite 60 

Poppyseed oil — its uses in painting 189 

Preparing earth colors for use 75 

Red group of pigments — ^general remarks on 154 

Red American vermillion — what it Is and its uses. .130 

Red carmine lake and its uses 149 

Red, Indian — general remarks on .138 

Red, Indian — artificial preparation best 139 

Red, Indian — characteristics of 139 

Red, Indian — uses of j39 

Red Indian lake — what it is and its uses 151 

Red lead — what it is and its uses 145 

Red ocher — what it is and its uses 154 



INDEX ix 

Red, Venetian — general remarks on 132 

Red, Venetian — artificial production of 133 

Red, Venetian — charactertistics of 133 

Red, Venetian — uses of 134 

Red, Vermillion (quicksilver) — general remarks on.l21 

Red, Vermillion — characteristics of 121 

Red, Vermillion — defects of 123 

Red, Vermillion — manufacture of 122 

Red, Vermillion — its uses 123 

Red Vermillion reds (imitation) — general remarks 

on 127 

Red Vermillion reds — characteristics of 127 

Red Vermillion reds — ^manufacture of 128 

Red Vermillion reds — ^uses of 128 

Renaissance — its effect upon color development, ... 30 

Seven groups of colors — what they are 41 

Sublimed white lead — what it is and its uses 174 

Synonims of colors — why given 42 

The coloring agents in timbers 74 

The coloring agents in siennas 79 

The coloring agents in Indian reds 138 

The coloring agents in ochers 154 

The coloring agents in Venetian reds 133 

Verdigris — what it is and its uses *. . . 117 

Vermillion (American) — what it is and its uses... 130 

Vermillion (quicksilver) — general remarks on 121 

Vermillion (quicksilver) — its characteristics 122 

Vermillion (quicksilver) — its defects 124 

Vermillion (quicksilver) — its manufacture 123 

Vermillion (quicksilver) — its uses 124 

Vermillion reds (imitation) — general remarks on. 127 
Vermillion reds (imitation) — Its characteristics ..128 

Vermillion reds (Imitation) — its defects 129 

Vermillion reds (imitation) — its manufacture 128 

Vermillion reds (Imitation) — ^its uses 129 



X INDEX 

Venetian red — general remarks upon 132 

Venetian red — artificial preparation of 134 

Venetian red — characteristics of 133 

Venetian red — uses of 134 

Volatile oils — their uses in painting 189 

White earths — general remarks upon 181 

White earths — argillaceous 182 

White earths — ^vataceous 182 

White earths — silicious 182 

White earths — their several characteristics 183 

White earths — their uses 184 

White group of pigments — general remarks on 166 

White lead — general remarks on 167 

White lead — Dutch process — ^meaning of 168 

White lead — how made by stack method 168 

White lead — how made by cylinder method , . .169 

White lead — its charactestics 170 

White lead — its defects 170 

White lead — its uses 171 

White zinc — general remarks on 176 

White zinc — its characteristics 177 

White zinc — French and American methods of man- 
ufacture 177 

White zinc — its defects 178 

White zinc — its uses 178 

Whiting — its preparation from chalk 182 

Whiting — its characteristics 182 

Whiting — its uses • • 183 

Yellow group of pigments — general remarks on. . . .153 

Yellow aureolin — ^what it is and its uses 164 

Yellow baryta lemon — what it is and its uses 162 

Yellow cadmium — what it is and its uses 165 

Yellow Dutch pink — ^what it is and its uses 167 

Yellow Indian — ^what it is and its uses 168 

Yellow Naples — ^what it is and its uses 168 



INDEX xi 

Yellow chrome — general remarks on 159 

Yellow chrome — manufacture of 160 

Yellow chrome — manufacture of light tones 161 

Yellow chrome — manufacture of orange tones 162 

Yellow chrome — characteristics of 163 

Yellow chrome — defects of 163 

Yellow chrome — uses of 163 

Yellow ocher — general remarks on 154 

Yellow ocher — ^mining and preparing for market. . . 75 

Yellow ocher — argillaceous — their character 157 

Yellow ocher — argillaceous — their defects 158 

Yellow ocher — argillaceous — their uses 158 

Yellow ocher — silicious — their character 155 

Yellow ocher — silicious — their defects 156 

Yellow ocher — silicious — their uses 156 

Zinc white — general remarks on 178 

Zinc white — characteristics of 179 

Zinc white — defects of 180 

Zinc white — manufacture by the French method. . .180 
Zinc white — manufacture by the American method. 180 
Zinc white — uses of 1*^ 



NOV 



mvQ 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



X. ^mo 



